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Elementary 

Forge Practice 



A Text-Book 
For Technical and Vocational Schools 



BY , "^ 

ROBERT H> HARCOURT 

Instructor in Forge Practice, 
Leland Stanford Junior University- 



Stanford University, Cal. 

STANFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS 

1917 



1 



Copyright, 1917 

by 
Robert H. Harcourt 



S)CI,A462955 



,21917 \ 



r/' 



PREFACE 

The purpose in this book is to give the student of forge 
practice an understanding of fundamental operations em- 
ployed, it being realized that many applications of these oper- 
ations can be learned only thru connection with commercial 
work. 

To this end a series of exercises has been arranged. It is 
not intended that a student be required to make all of them, 
but there are certain ones which must be mastered before he 
can make some of those that follow. They are arranged with 
the intention of meeting the demands of all classes of students. 

Instruction should be given on the first few exercises and 
on those parts of the more difficult ones which may be hard for 
the student to understand. The writer has found that in most 
cases a student can make the simpler exercises with very little 
instruction if given a drawing showing the different steps to 
be taken. 

The subject matter contained herein has been used at 
Leland Stanford Junior University for a number of years as 
a syllabus, together with a set of forgings showing the actual 
steps. Its use has clearly demonstrated the following ad- 
vantages. 

1. Taking of notes during a lecture is partially clim- 
ated, so that a student has the fullest opportunity for watching 
the entire demonstration. The text is a ready reference in 
case he does not remember a demonstrated point. 

2. Students are able to proceed with the exercises without 
much instruction, thus saving time. 

3. Students make the exercises better and in a shorter per- 
iod of time. 



4 PREFACE 

4. The initiative of the student as well as his ability to work 
from drawings is developed. 

Many thanks are due to Professor E. P. Lesley of Leland 
Stanford Junior University for his assistance in reading the 
manuscript ; to Mr. W. L. Rifenberick for his work on the 
preliminary syllabus : and to Mr. H. P. Miller, Jr., for his 
valuable suggestions and assistance in the preparation of the 
drawings. 

R. H. Harcourt. 

Stanford University, I\Iay 1917. 



CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Chapter I. Materials and Equipment g 

Materials; Wrought Iron, Xorway or Swedish Iron, 
Machinery Steel, High-Carbon Steel, High-Speed Steel ; 
Emery-wheel Test ; Weight of Iron ; Shrinkage ; Bibliog- 
raphy ; Forge, Fire Tools, Coal, Building Fire, Coke, Making 
Coke, Clinker, Banking Fire, Cleaning Fire at End of 
Period ; Anvil, Tool Rack ; Hammer, Backing Hammer, 
Cross-Peen Hammer, Sledges; Tongs, Fitting Tongs to the 
Work ; Measuring and Marking Tools ; Flatter, Set- 
Hammer, Chisels, Grinding Chisels, Bob-Punch, Necking 
Tool, Fullers, Swages, Swage Block; Vise. Cone, Surface 
Plate, Shears. 

Chapter II. Drawing-out, Bending, and Twisting ... 26 

Oxidizing Fire ; To Prevent the Formation of Scale ; 
Welding Heat, Indications of a Welding Heat ; Burned 
Iron ; Drawing-out, Squaring, or Truing-up, Work ; Cut- 
ting Cold Stock, Cutting Hot Stock ; Twisting, Punching. 

Chapter III. Common Welds ........ 42 

Lap-weld, Upsetting, Scarfing ; Use of Fluxes in Welding, 
Method of Using Flux ; Welded Rings ; Forged Hook, 
Common Eye-Bolt, Common Hinge, Flat Ring, Band Ring, 
Heading Tool, Cupping Tool, Bolts. 

Chapter IV. Special Welds yj, 

Butt Weld, V-Weld, Jump Weld, Split Weld, Split Weld 
for Heavy Stock, T-Weld, Angle Weld. 

Chapter V. Hammer Work 82 

Trip- or Belt-Hammer, Steam-Hammer ; Finishing Allow- 
ance ; Forged Wrench, Flat-Jawed Tongs, Link Tongs, 
Hollow-Bit Tongs. 



6 CONTENTS 

Chapter VI. Annkaling. Hardening, and Tempering Steel 96 

Annealing, Box Annealing, Water Annealing ; Hardening, 
Refining Heat, Recalescence, Tempering, Guide for Hard- 
ening, Tempering only the Cutting-edges of Tools, Harden- 
ing and Tempering Tools thruout. Methods of Cooling, 
Forging Heat of Tool Steel, Heating Steel for Hardening, 
Importance of Uniform Heating, Hardening at a Rising 
Heat, Restoring the Grain, Warping in Cooling, Hardening 
Thin Flat Articles, Tempering Taps. Tempering Carving 
Knives, Tempering Shear Blades, Tempering Springs, Case- 
Hardening, Pack-Hardening; Treatment of High-Speed 
Steel ; Cutting Stock, Forging Heat, the Fire, Heating for 
Hardening, Cooling, Annealing. 

Chapter VII. Tool Forging 113 

Selection of Steel for Tools, Lathe Tools, Cold Chisel, Cape 
Chisel, Round-Nose Cape Chisel, Center-Punch, Round-Nose 
Tool, Cutting-off Tool, Threading Tool, Side Tool, Boring 
Tool, Cross-Peen Hammer, Eye-Punch, Drift-Pin, Small 
Cross-Peen Hammer, Ball-Peen Hammer, Hot Eye-Chisel, 
Cold Eye-Chisel, Geologist's Pick, Hand Rock-Drill, Ma- 
chine Rock-Drill, V-Fullers, Wing Swage, Dolly. 



EXERCISES 

PLATE 

1. Drawing-out and Bending Ring I 

2. S-Hook II 

3. Staples Ill 

4. Beam Strap IV 

5. Twisted Gate-Hook V 

6. Practice Welds — Fagot VI 

7. Round Lap-Weld . VII 

8. Flat Lap-Weld VIII 

9. Links of Chain ......... IX 

10. Ring— Round Lap-Weld X 

11. Ring — Link Scarf XI 

12. Forged Hook .' XII 

13. Common Eye-Bolt XIII 

14. Common Hinge ........ XIV 

15. Flat Ring XV 

16. Band Ring XVI 

17. Upset-Head Bolt XVII 

18. Welded-Head Bolt XVIII 

19. Forged Bolt XVIII 

20. T-Weld XIX 

21. Angle Weld XX 

22. Forged Open-End Wrench XXI 

23. Flat-Jawed Tongs XXII - XXIII 

24. Link Tongs XXIV -XXV 

25. Hollow-Bit Tongs XXVI 

26. Cold Chisel XXVII 

27. Cape Chisel ' XXVII 

28. Round-Nose Cape Chisel XXVIII 

29. Center-Punch XXVIII 

30. Round-Nose Tool XXTX 

31. Cutting-Off Tool XXIX 

32. Threading Tool XXX 

2,2,- Side Tool XXXI 

34- Boring Tool XXXII 

35. Cross-Peen Hammer XXXIII 

36. Small Cross-Peen Hammer XXXIV 

2,7. Ball-Peen Hammer XXXV 

38. Hot Eye-Chisel XXXVI 

39. Cold Eye-Chisel XXXVII 

40. Geologist's Pick XXXVIII 

41. Hand Rock-Drill XXXIX 

42. Machine Rock-Drill XXXX 



Elementary Forge Practice 



CHAPTER I. 
Materials and Equipment. 

The Materials most commonly used in forging are : 
wrought iron, Norway iron, machine steel, tool steel, and 
high-speed steel. Their main constituent is iron, as obtained 
from iron ore ; but they differ in the amount of carbon and 
other elements that are mixed or alloyed with the iron. 

Wrought Iron is made by the Puddling Process, and dif- 
fers from other kinds of iron mainly because of the slag 
seams introduced during its manufacture. These seams cause 
the stringy, fibrous appearance of the iron when it is broken 
or cut cold. They are helpful when welding, since the slag 
acts as a Hux ; but they also weaken the iron, and make it 
liable to crack. Wrought iron is much easier to weld than 
machine steel, because the range of temperature thru which 
it may be heated without injury is much greater. It may not 
be hardened to any appreciable extent. If hammered too 
much when cold it will burst thru the slag seams. 

The percentage of carbon in common wrought iron is very 
low, being about .04%. 

Norway, or Swedish Iron, as imported from Norway and 
Sweden, is made in a charcoal furnace. It is the purest soft 
iron on the market, as the ore from which it is made is prac- 
tically free from phosphorus and sulphur. It is used mainly 
for intricate work involving much bending and, since it rusts 
very slowly, for forgings that are exposed to the weather. 
The best grades of crucible steel produced in this country are 
also made from this kind of iron. 



10 MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT 

Machinery Steel, also known as machine steel, low-carbon 
steel, and mild steel, contains from about .05% to .5% of 
carbon, and is made by the Open-Hearth or Bessemer Process. 
It may be easily welded with the aid of a flux, and can be 
welded without one. Being stronger, more homogeneous and 
cheaper than wrought iron, it is well adapted for forgings. It 
cannot be hardened to any very great extent. A piece of good 
grade ^-inch thick may be bent cold 180° flat on itself with- 
out rupture. In general it is found that increasing the carbon 
content will increase the strength, elasticity and hardening 
quality, and decrease the ductility and weldability. 

This grade of steel differs from wrought iron in that it 
does not become soft and plastic at the welding heat. It 
burns or wastes away at a lower temperature than wrought 
iron, making it more difficult to weld. The crystalline, or 
granular, appearance of the fracture, the absence of slag 
seams, and the emery-wheel test described later, are used to 
distinguish it from wrought iron. 

High-Carbon Steel, or tool steel, the best grades of which 
are made bv the Crucible Process, contains carbon in amounts 
varying from .5%. to 1.6%. Steel with a higher carbon con- 
tent is seldom used. High-carbon steel is generally dis- 
tinguished from low-carbon steel by the fact that it becomes 
very hard when heated to a red heat and suddenly cooled. It 
snaps oiT when cut cold, on account of the hardness of the 
ordinary commercial stock. As with mild, or low-carbon steel, 
the hardening cjuality varies directly with the carbon content. 
There are, however, some brands of steel containing less than 
.5% carbon which harden considerably when heated and cooled 
quickly ; so there is no well marked division between the two 
classes. High-carbon steel is most difficult to weld. 

High-Speed Steel is of special importance in the machine 
shop on account of its red hardness, or property of retaining 
a cutting edge at a visible red heat. Tools made from ordi- 



IRON AND STEEL 11 

nary high-carbon steel, if heated by friction or otherwise to a 
temperature of about 400° F., begin to lose their hardness; 
while high-speed steel tools may be heated up to about 1200° 
F. before they break down from softening. 

This property is due to the presence in the steel of from 
13% to 19% tungsten. Other elements are present in approx- 
imately the percentages given: 

Tungsten Chromium Carbon Manganese Vanadium Silicon 
16.87 -99 0.65 0.31 0.85 0.27 

The Emery- Wheel Test. — The most satisfactory shop 
method for distinguishing between the different kinds and 
grades of iron and steel consists in observing the sparks 
given ofif when a bar of the material is brought in contact 
with a rapidly revolving emery-wheel. In general it is found 
that the more carbon there is present the brighter the sparks 
will be. 

Sparks obtained from wrought iron are light-straw color, 
and follow straight lines. Machine steel gives olT sparks 
that are much the same in character except that they explode, 
or fork, to some extent. White sparks which explode much 
more frequently are obtained from high-carbon steel. Those 
given off by high-speed steel follow straight lines, similarly 
to sparks from wrought iron, but give oft" much less light, and 
end abruptly in a chrome-yellow, pear-shaped flame. 

Weight of Iron. — It is often necessary to know the 
weight of material used in an iron or steel forging. This can 
be computed if it is remembered that a cubic foot of steel 
weighs about 490 pounds, or that a i-inch square bar i foot 
long weighs 3.40 pounds and a i-inch round bar of the same 
length weighs 2.67 pounds. 

Shrinkage. — When iron or steel is heated, it expands in 
direct proportion to the change in temperature. A bar heated 
to a good forging heat will have each of its linear dimensions 
increased about ^ inch to the foot. Upon cooling it will con- 
tract about the same amount. 



12 



MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT 



Bibliography. — For a complete description of the various 
processes employed in making iron and steel, the student is 
referred to the following books : 

Stoughton: The Metallurgy of Iron and Steel. Hill Publishing 
Co., New York. 

Metcalf: Steel. John Wiley & Sons, New York. 

Forge. — One of the commonest types of forge used in 
universities and technical schools is shown in Fig. i. It con- 
sists of a cast-iron hearth (A) mounted on a suitable base 
(H) and having at its center a fire-pot (B). This fire-pot 
is made in various shapes and sizes, and is sometimes lined 
with fire-brick. At the bottom of the fire-pot is an opening, 




Fig. I. The Forge. 

A, hearth; B, fire-pot; C, tuyere lever; D, blast-gate lever; E, 
adjustable hood; F, adjusting lever; G, exhaust pipe; H, base; /, 
coal-box ; /, coke-box. 



FIRE 13 

called the tuyere, thru which the blast is forced. Tuyeres are 
constructed so as to admit the air readily and at the same time 
prevent coal from dropping thru them. Some are arranged 
so that the coal and ashes which do drop thru can be shaken 
out by means of the tuyere lever (C). The air blast is con- 
trolled by means of the blast-gate lever (D). 

The forge shown is of the down-draft type, the smoke and 
gases from the fire being drawn under the adjustable hood 
(E) and down thru the exhaust pipe (G). The position of 
the hood can be changed by means of the adjusting lever (F). 
The boxes (/) and (/) should be used for holding coal and 
coke respectively, a separate tank for water being advisable. 

In commercial shops the forges are generally circular and 
made of light sheet-steel. 

Fire Tools. — The tools required at each forge in order to 
take proper care of the fire are : coal shovel, fire rake, dipper, 
and poker. 

Coal. — The best "blacksmith's" coal for use in a forge is 
a high grade of soft or bituminous coal. It can in general be 
distinguished by the crumbling of the lumps when hit with a 
hammer ; but the most reliable test is to note its characteris- 
tics in actual use. When dampened and put on a fire it should 
cake up, forming good coke and leaving very little clinker 
when burned. Ordinary soft coal, or steam-coal, makes a very 
dirty fire, giving off much smoke and leaving a great deal of 
clinker. It is very disagreeable to work with, on account 
both of the smoke and of the hot gases given ofif. 

Coal containing either sulphur or phosphorus is to be 
avoided, as these elements are absorbed by the iron. Sulphur 
makes the iron hot-short, i. e., brittle while hot ; and phos- 
phorus makes it cold-short, or brittle when cold. ■ 

Building Fire. — The success of welding and forging de- 
pends, to a large extent, on the building and care of the fire. 
When a fresh fire is to be built, make a hole about 8 inches in 
diameter at the center of the hearth, removing enough of the 



14 MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT 

dirt and ashes to expose the tuyere. Place some shavings in 
this hole and on top of them some small lumps of coke. After 
lighting the shavings, turn the blast on a little and wait until 
the coke has become red hot. More coke should then be 
added, forming a cone, and the space around it banked, or 
filled in, with moist coal. Care must be taken in dampening 
the coal not to get it too wet, or the water will seep out and run 
over the tuyere, thereby spoiling the fire. When enough coal 
has been placed around the fire, it should be leveled ofif and 
packed down hard with the back of a shovel. This is done to 
prevent the air-blast from coming thru at the outer edges of 
the fire, spreading it over too large an area. 

Coke. — It is found that packing also helps materially in 
the production of coke, which is formed by the caking of the 
coal after the fire has burned for some time. Coke should be 
saved when cleaning out the fire or hearth at the end of a 
period, or when building a second fire. The center of the 
fire burns out somewhat like a crater, and has to be constantly 
refilled with extra coke. If it is necessary to have a small 
fire, the coke should be broken into small pieces. 

Making Coke. — When extra coke is required, it can be 
made by placing some large lumps of" wet coal on top of the 
fire and allowing it to burn slowly for some time. It should 
not be disturbed with a poker until it has caked well. 

Caution. — Do not continually poke or disturb the fire, but 
keep the center full of small pieces of coke. 

Clinker. — Dirt and dross in the coal form clinker directly 
above the tuyere. This is a detriment when welding, since it 
prevents air from coming thru the tuyere and causes a de- 
posit of dirt on the pieces in the fire. I^r this reason the fire 
should be cleaned out every half-hour, when welding, by re- 
moving the clinker with a poker. Care must be taken to pre- 
vent lead and babbitt metal from getting into the fire, as they 
oxidize and prevent welding. 



FIRE 



15 



Banking Fire. — By placing a piece of wood on end in the 
fire and covering it with coke and coal, the fire will last for 
some time without air-blast. 

Cleaning Fire at End of Period. — When the fire is no 
longer needed, the coal should be removed and placed in the 
coal-tank. The coke should then be loosened with the poker, 
moistened with water, and placed in the coke-tank. The 
clinker and ashes are dug out and thrown into the ash-box. 
The forge is then clean and ready for future use. 




A, body; B, 



Fig. 2. The Anvil. 

horn ; C, base of horn ; D, face ; E, hardie hole 
pritchel hole ; G, rounded edges. 



F, 



Anvil. — The type of anvil generally used is shown in Fig. 
2. The body {A) is usually made of wrought iron or a special 
grade of steel, but for light work it is sometimes of cast iron. 
The horn {B) must be tough in order to withstand heavy 
pounding and is usually of the same material as the body. 
The base of the horn (C) has a flat top which is used in pref- 
erence to the face when cutting stock with a chisel, because 



16 



MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT 



it is not SO hard and will not dull the chisel. The face (D) 
is a tool-steel plate 3^ -inch thick which is welded to the body. 
It is carefully hardened and has a smoothly ground top. The 
square hardie hole (E) is used for holding the shanks of 
tools, while the pritchel hole (F) is very convenient in making 
small bolts, as it allows their stems, or shanks, to extend thru. 
The two side edges of the face (G) are rounded for about 4 
inches near the horn, to facilitate the bending of stock. If in- 
tended for small work, like the exercises in this book, an anvil 
should weigh about 150 pounds. 

The anvil should be placed with the horn at the left of the 
worker and the face 26 inches above the floor, the outer edge 
being about % inch lower than the inner one. It is therefore 
necessary to provide a base. This is generally of cast iron, as 
shown in Fig. 2. but may consist of a large wooden block. 




Fig. 3. TooltRack. 

Tool-Rack.— To have the blacksmith tools within easy 
reach while working at the forge, they should be kept on some 
sort of a tool-rack. A very good type is shown in Fig. 3. 
It consists of an iron top cast on one end of a piece of large 
pipe. The other end of the pipe is imbedded in the floor. 
Slots for holding tools are provided on each side of the top, 
which acts as a table for pieces of stock, supplies, etc. 



HAMMER 



17 



These racks are sometimes made of wood, but such are 
easily burned by hot materials, and, since they usually have 
four legs and a bottom shelf, it is rather hard to clean under 
them. 

The Hammer used most commonly by blacksmiths is a 
ball-peen hammer weighing from 1^2 to 2^ pounds and sim- 
ilar to the one shown in Fig. 4. The face, or large end, is for 
ordinary work ; and the ball end, or peen, for scarfing, rivet- 
ing, etc. The face should be convex, in order not to mark 
hot material, and its edges rounded off, to keep them from 
breaking. The edge of the face nearest the worker is called 
the heel, and the front edge the toe. 






Fig. 4. 
Hand-Hammer. 



Fig. 5. 
Cross-peen 



Fig. 6. 
Sledge. 



A Backing Hammer generally has the same shape as the 
common ball-peen hammer, but it weighs about 5 pounds. 
It is used by a helper when light quick blows are necessary, 
and also when backing up, or starting, the heel of a scarf. 

A Cross-peen Hammer, Fig. 5, weighing about 3>4 
pounds, is needed for each two forges. This hammer is par- 
ticularly valuable in welding steel on account of the heavier 
blows which can be delivered. It is also useful when making 
a pair of tongs, and in almost any work where one student 
needs the help of another. 

Sledges.— Fig. 6 shows a sledge of the straight-peen type. 



18 



MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT 



which is ordinarily used in a blacksmith shop. The weight of 
such sledges varies from 8 to 13 pounds. 

Tongs vary in form, depending on the size and shape of 
the stock handled. Those frequently used in the forge shop 
are shown in Fig. 7. 








-^, flat-jawed; i?, hollow-bits : C, link ; A pick-ups ; £, chisel. 



The Flat- Jawed Tongs, shown at A in Fig. 7, are used for 
holding flat stock. 

The Hollow-Bit Tongs (B, Fig. 7) are employed in 
handhng round, square, or flat material. 



TONGS 19 

Link Tongs are shown at C, Fig. 7, and are very con- 
venient for holding Unks or rings. 

Pick-up Tongs {D, Fig. 7) are intended mainly for pick- 
ing up large and small pieces of different sizes of stock. 

The Eye Tongs, or eye-chisel tongs, shown at E in Fig. 7, 
are used in dressing an eye-chisel. The projections are made 
to fit into the eye, while the jaws are bent so as to avoid con- 
tact with the burred head of the chisel. 

Fitting Tongs to the Work. — Tongs should always be 
fitted to the work which they are intended to hold. The 
poorly fitted tongs shown at A, Fig. 8, should be changed so 
that the jaws touch the stock for their entire length, as in B, 
Fig. 8. Their form at A affords a poor grip, which is a seri- 
ous drawback when forging or welding. 





Fig. 8. 

To fit tongs to a piece of work the jaws should be heated 
red hot, the stock placed between them, and the jaws ham- 
mered down tight around it. In order to prevent the handles, 
or reins, from coming too close together while doing this, a 
piece of iron should be placed between them directlv behind 
the jaws. If the handles are too far apart, give them several 
blows a short distance back of the eye. 

Never leave tongs on a piece of work while it is in the fire 
if there is danger of their becoming hot. When removed 
from the fire they will not hold the work firmly, because the 
handles will come together under the pressure of the hand. 



20 



MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT 



Measuring and Marking Tools. — In forging it is often 
required to work to a given size, or to duplicate another 
forging. For this reason it is necessary to have on hand a 
rule, a pair of calipers, and a try-square, as shown in Fig. 9. 



£) . 



Rule 



' r i'i'i'i '' ' i '|'i' i ' i ' i ' r '' i ''T'T''i'' 



Square 





Center Punches 



Fig. 9. Measuring and Marking Tools. 



The rule should be of brass in order to withstand the heat, and 
should have a 12-inch scale with enough extra room for a 
hand-hold. The calipers are generally made of steel, and are 
used mainly for work done under the trip-hammer. The try- 
square need only be a small one. 

For marking stock a center-punch is generally employed, 




in 



Fiar. 10. The Flatter. 



Fig. II. The Set-Hammer. 



since the mark made by a chisel will start a crack if the stock 
is bent. A chisel should be used only when the stock is to be 
cut ofif at the point marked. 

The Flatter, Fig. 10, is used for flattening and smoothing 



CHISELS 



21 



straight surfaces. Its face is generally about 3 inches square, 
and should be smooth with rounded edges. 

The Set-Hammer, shown in Fig. 11, is used in finishing 
corners and parts that cannot be reached with the flatter. 
The sizes vary, but for small work the face should be about 
1% inches square. It also should be smooth and flat. The one 
illustrated is commonly called the square-edge set-hammer, to 
distinguish it from the round-edge set-hammer. 

Chisels. — Two kinds of chisels are commonly used in the 
forge shop : one for cutting cold material, and the other for 
cutting hot material. These are called cold and hot chisels. 

The cold chisel, Fig. 12, is made thicker in the blade than 
the hot chisel. Fig. 13, which has a rather thin edge. The 




Fig. 12. 
Cold Chisel. 



Fig. 13. 
Hot Chisel. 



Fig. 14. 
Hardie. 



hardie, shown in Fig. 14, is used for cutting hot material. It 
has a square shank to fit the hardie hole in the anvil. Hardies 
are also made to cut cold stock. 

The hot chisel should never be used on cold material, as 
its edge will be turned and ruined ; nor should the cold chisel 
be used for cutting hot stock, as the heat will soften its edge, 
making it unfit for cutting cold stock. 

Grinding Chisels. — The sides of a cold chisel should be 
ground to an angle of about 60 degrees with each other, as 
shown at A in Fig. 15. This forms a good cutting edge. If 
the edge is too thin it will bend. 



22 



MATERIALS AND EOUIPMEXT 



The cutting edge should also be ground convex, as shown 
slightly exaggerated at B. This prevents the corners from 
breaking off too readily, as they would if it were ground as 
at C. 

Hot chisels are ground somewhat thinner than cold 
chisels, and with the sides at an angle of about 30°. 




Fig. 15- 

The Bob-Punch, shown in Fig. 16, is used in place of the 
peen of a hammer for hollowing out stock. Examples of its 
application are given in several of the special welds described 
in Chapter IW It is hit with a heavy hammer, in the same 
manner as the flatter. If a hand hammer were used in place 
of the bob-punch its hardened face might break when struck. 





Fig. 16. 
Bob-punch. 



Fig. 17. 
Necking Tool. 



Necking Tool. — In certain cases, such as welding an eye- 
bolt, finishing the inside of the eye of a forged hook, and 
making a T-weld, a necking tool ( Fig. 17 ) is very convenient, 
but not absolutely necessary. 

Fullers. — Fig. 18 show^s top and bottom fullers, which are 



FULLERS AND SWAGES 



23 



used in forming grooves and filleted corners. They are made 
in a number of sizes, depending upon the radius of the cir- 
cular edge, C. On a ^-inch fuller this radius would be }i 
inch. 

The top fuller, A, is made with a handle, while the bottom 
fuller, B, has a square shank, like the hardie. 





Fig. i8. 
Top and Bottom Fuller. 



Fig. 19. 
Top .\nd Bottom Sw.\ge. 



Swages. — A top and a bottom swage are shown at A and B 
in Fig. 19. They are used for a wide variety of purposes, but 
mainly for finishing round material. The sizes vary accord- 




Fig. 20. The Swage Block. 

ing to the diameter of the round stock for which they are 
made. Thus a 2-inch swage is used on 2-inch round stock. 



24 



MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT 



A Swage Block is shown in Fig. 20. These blocks are 
usually made of cast iron, and, owing to their wide range of 
utility, in various shapes and sizes. They are of special im- 
portance in small shops, as they can be made to take the place 
of numerous swages and special tools. A cast-iron base is 
generally provided, as shown, on which they can be placed 
in either a flat or an upright position. 

Vise. — For work requiring twisting and filing, some kind 
of a vise is desirable. The type most commonly used in a 
forge shop is shown in Fig. 21. A vise should always be at- 
tached to a firm and substantial bench. 





Fig. 21. The Vise. Fig. 22. The Cone. 

The Cone, Fig. 22, is used for rounding, or truing, rings. 
This is done by heating the rings thruout and forcing them 
down on the cone. If the ring is made in the form of a band 
from flat stock, it must be turned over and both edges ex- 
panded equally to make it straight. 

Cones are made of cast iron in various sizes. A conveni- 
ent one is from 2>4 to 3>4 feet high, with the diameter of 
the small end 2 inches and of the large end about 14 inches. 



SURFACE PLATE 25 

The Surface Plate suitable for technical schools is made of 
cast iron, and is about 2 by 3 feet, varying in thickness from 
2 to 4 inches. It should have a number of 1 34-inch round or 
square holes in it, spaced about 3 inches between centers. 




Fig. 23. The Surface Plate. 

These are used for holding pins and formers when bending 
rings, pipes, and work similar in character. The face of the 
plate should be planed, so that work can be straightened or 
tested on it. 

These plates are usually mounted on cast iron bases, as 
shown in Fig. 23 ; but wooden blocks may be used. 

Shears. — For cutting off cold stock, shears are generally 
used in preference to a hardie or chisel, on account of the 
time which may be saved. They are either hand- or power- 
operated, and vary in size, being usually designated by the 
maximum size of stock which can be cut. One that should 
meet most of the demands of a technical school will cut 
^ X 4 inch stock. When material is cut with the shears, its 
ends are rough and have to be squared up on the anvil. 



CHAPTER II. 
Drawing-out, Bendinc, and Twisting. 

Oxidizing Fire. — As the coal in a forge burns it con- 
sumes oxygen from the air-blast. If too much air is blown 
thru the fire there will be an excess of oxygen. This will at- 
tack the heated iron or steel, forming scale, or oxide of iron. 
The rate of this scale formation increases with the rise in 
temperature of the material. 

Scale should be avoided even on an ordinary forging, since 
it pits the material and, if not removed while hot, makes it 
look as though it had been overheated. Unless the scale is 
in a molten condition it is also impossible to make a sound 
weld. 

To Prevent the Formation of Scale the following precau- 
tions should be taken : 

1. Have a good bed of hot coals over the tuyere iron for 
the air to pass thru. 

2. Keep the material well covered with coke, in order to 
make the part of its surface exposed to the air as small as 
possible. If the air-blast comes in direct contact with the 
material, scale will form and the material will be cooled to a 
certain extent. 

3. Do not put on .too much blast, i. e., force too much air 
thru the lire. If this is done the hot coals will be blown out 
of the center of the fire, leaving no bed of hot coals for con- 
suming the oxygen. 

Welding Heat. — When pieces of wrought iron are heated 
they soften, until at a certain temperature they will stick to- 
gether if placed in contact. The temperature at which this 
soft and sticky condition occurs is known as the welding heat 
of wrought iron. 

Soft steel has the required welding characteristics at a 



WELDING HEAT 



27 



lower temperature than wrought iron. It does not, however, 
become very soft at this heat. 

Indications of a Welding Heat. — Just before the iron 
reaches the welding heat, explosive sparks will fly out of the 
fire. These sparks are small particles of the material which 
have melted off and are being blown out. 

To reach this condition and have the material of uniform 
temperature thruout, the heating must be done slowly. If too 
much air-blast is used the outside of the material will burn 
as just described but the center will remain hard. An attempt 
to weld two pieces heated in this manner will generally result 
in a failure, since the cold inside together with the surround- 
ing air will quickly cool the outside surface. 

Burned Iron.- — If a bar of wrought iron, or mild steel, be 
allowed to remain in the fire with the blast on after the weld- 
ing heat has been reached, it will burn. The material which 
is burned off runs over the tuyere and forms lumps similar to 
the clinker. Since the burned portion of an iron bar is ab- 
solutely useless, care should be taken to remove the bar when 
it has reached the welding heat. 

The air-blast should always be turned off when the 
material is removed from the fire. This prevents a waste of 
coal and keeps the fire small. 

Drawing-Out is the process of increasing the length of a 
piece of stock while reducing its cross-sectional area. With 
machine steel this can be done at a yellow heat, but wrought 
iron requires a welding heat. 

When the stock is at the proper heat, this drawing-out can 
be accomplished by hammering it over the large part of the 
horn with a hand hammer, as shown in Fig. 24. This makes 
the piece increase in length without widening it very much. 
If it were hammered on the face of the anvil a large amount 
of energy would be wasted, due to the sidewise spreading of 
the stock. 



28 



DRAWING-OUT, BENDING, AND TWISTING 



In drawing-out stock of any shape it should first be ham- 
mered square to prevent it from bursting. This also makes 
the grain finer and improves the physical properties of the 
material. Even when a round bar is to be reduced in diameter 




Fig. 24. Drawing-Out. 

it should be first hammered square, then octagonal, and finally 
round. 

The reason for this procedure can be explained with the 
aid of Fig. 25, which shows the cross-section of a piece of 
round stock that is being slowly revolved while hammering. 
The blows on top will cause the stock to flatten out and as- 
sume the shape indicated by the dotted line. This will make 
the sides, A and A, tend to pull away from the center. As 





Fig. 25. 



Fig. 26. 



the piece is revolved and hammered the direction of this pull 
will change, so that the tendency will be for the whole outside 
surface to separate from the center. The result is the forma- 
tion of cracks, as shown in Fig. 26. These make the iron 
structurally weak. 

When drawing stock down to a conical point, as in Exer- 
cise 3, it must first be hammered square and the corners then 
rounded off. If this is not done the point will split or burst. 

Squaring, or Truing-up, Work. — When drawing-out a 



CUTTING STOCK 



29 



round bar to a square one there is danger of its becoming dia- 
mond-shaped in cross-section, as shown in Fig. 27. It will, in 
fact, almost invariably assume this shape if the bar is not 
heated uniformly. The bar may be trued-up by laying it 
across the anvil and striking it as indicated by the arrow so as 
to force the extra metal back into the body of the bar. 




Fig. 27. 

Cutting Cold Stock. — In cutting cold bars of soft steel or 
wrought iron with a cold chisel the method employed should 
be as follows : Around the bar make a series of cuts about 
one-fourth of the way thru, taking care to have them always 
at right angles to the axis of the bar. Tilt the bar slightly, 
and place the partly cut section at the outer edge of the anvil. 
By hitting the projecting end a sharp blow with a sledge it 
should break off easily. 

If the stock becomes slightly warm when being cut in this 
way, cool it with water ; otherwise it will be tough and will 
not break off. 

Cutting Hot Stock. — Hot stock must be cut all the way 
thru, since it is generally too soft to be very easily broken off 
by a sledge blow. To obtain a square cut at one end of a bar 
the hot chisel should be tilted away from that end until one 
side of the cutting edge is perpendicular to the bar. Hot 
stock is usually cut from either two or four sides, but if it is 
flat the cutting is done from either one or both of the wider 



30 



DRAWIXG-OUT, BENDING, AND TWISTING 



sides. In cutting round stock the bar should be revolved 
toward the worker. 

The cutting- edge of a hot chisel will become soft and bend 
if allowed to get too hot. For this reason it is necessary to 
dip it in water frequently to cool it off. It should also be re- 
moved from the cut between blows. 

In using a chisel, and especially a hot chisel, never allow 
its cutting edge to come in contact with the hard face of the 
anvil. When a piece has been nearly cut thru, it should be 
moved forward until the cut is just outside the edge of the 
anvil. A copper plate is sometimes used for protecting the 
chisel edge when cutting thin stock. The chisel may then cut 
thru the stock and sink into the copper without having its 
edge spoiled. 

A hardie is used in much the same manner as a chisel. 
When the stock has been nearly cut thru, the last blow or two 
should fall on the far side of the hardie. This keeps the face 




Fig. 28. 

of the hammer from coming in contact with and spoiling the 
cutting edge of the hardie. It also prevents the projecting end 
from flying up and hitting the worker in the face, as it might 
if this were not done. 

Twisting. — When twisting stock, it should first be marked 



PUNCPIING 31 

with a center-punch at the points where the twist is to begin 
and end. The section to be twisted is heated to an even yellow 
heat. The piece is then quickly placed in a vise with one cen- 
ter-punch mark in line with one edge of the jaws, as shown in 
Fig. B, Plate V. A pair of fiat-jawed tongs or a wrench is 
used to grasp the piece at the other mark in the same manner. 
The bar can then be twisted as much as required. If there is 
no vise convenient, two pairs of tongs may be used. 

In order to obtain a uniform twist the stock must be uni- 
formly heated. A, B and C of Fig. 28 illustrate the effects 
produced by twisting square, octagonal, and flat material re- 
spectively. 



C^ 





Fig. 29. 

Punching. — Two kinds of punches are commonly em- 
ployed for punching holes in hot material. The straight hand- 
punch shown at A in Fig. 29 is used on thin stock, while the 
eye-punch at B is used for punching holes in heavier stock. 
These punches should be made of tool steel, since they bend 
too easily if made of machine steel. 

When punching thick material, the hot stock is laid flat on 
the anvil and the punch driven into it with a sledge-hammer. 
At a depth of about 34 i^ich the punch is removed and some 
green or dry coal placed in the hole to prevent sticking. When 
the punch has been driven three-fourths of the way thru, as 
shown at C, a black mark will appear on the bottom side. 



32 DRAWING-OUT, BENDING, AND TWISTING 

The stock is then reversed and the punching continued from 
that side, as at D. During the entire operation the punch 
should be cooled occasionally, to keep it from softening and 
bending. Care should be taken when finishing the punching 
to have the punch directly above the bardie or the pritchel 
hole, in order to allow the plug to drop thru. 

A clean-cut hole will be obtained if this procedure is car- 
ried out; but if the punching is done from one side only, a 
burr will be raised on the lower side, as shown at E. 

Exercise i. Drawing-out and Bending Ring. (Plate I.) 

This exercise is given for the purpose of familiarizing the 
student with the heating of machine steel or wrought iron and 
the use of the hand-hammer. 

Step One. — The round stock is drawn out square, as 
shown at i. This is done by heating about 3 or 4 inches of it 
at one end to a yellow heat, and reducing it with a hand- 
hammer on the large part of the horn, as shown in Fig. 24. 

Step Two. — The material is rounded by hammering it on 
the corners, making it first octagonal and then round. It is 
smoothed up either by placing it in a 5^ -inch bottom-swage 
and revolving it while hammering or by using top- and bot- 
tom-swages. 

Step Three. — A piece 11^ inches long is cut ofi^ of the 
drawn-out portion. This may be done on the bardie in the 
manner already described. Be sure to have the last blows fall 
on the far side of the bardie, to avoid spoiling its edge and 
to prevent the cut portion from flying up into the face of the 
worker. 

Step Four. — About a third of the stock is heated, and bent 
over the la:rge part of the anvil, as shown at 4. The hammer 
blows should fall on the end outside of the horn, and not on 
top of the horn. This will bend the material without marring 
it. The other end is bent in the same manner. 



Exercise i. 



Plate I. 



DRAWING-OUT 8c BENDING RING 



Stock . 1 round machine steel 






© 



j> — vA ^ W^ < , w_ 



-111 




34 DRAWING-OUT, BENDING, AND TWISTING 

Step Five. — The piece is heated and held with a pair of 
Unk-tongs, as shown in Fig. A. The bending is then con- 
tinued by hammering as indicated. The ring is finally made 
circular on the horn of the anvil. The ends must be cut off 
with a hot chisel or bardie along the dotted lines shown. 

Step Six.— The ends are driven together and the round- 
ing finished. When the ring is completed, it may be given a 
black finish by holding it over a smoky fire until black hot and 
then wiping it with oily waste. 



Exercise 2. S-Hook. (Plate IL) 

Step One. — After squaring up the ends of the stock, heat 
about half of the piece and bend one end over the horn. Be 
sure to have the blows fall on the far side of the horn, as in 
the previous exercise. 

Step Two. — Continue the bending until the piece is shaped 
as shown. 

Step Three. — Heat the other end and bend it over the 
horn in the same manner as before, but in the opposite di- 
rection. 

Step Four. — Complete the bending by making the hook 
appear as shown. The finished hook should be free from 
rough marks caused by improper bending. 



Exercise 2. 



'late TI. 



S HOOK 



Stock: ^ X 8^ round t^achine Steel 



^- 



3f 



8f 



in|!£ 






® 









36 DRAWING-OUT, BENDING, AND TWISTING 



Exercises. Staples. (Plate III.) 

Step One. — Cut the stock to length, then hammer out the 
ends to a square or a chisel-point, as shown at la and lb. 
Work at the outer edge of the anvil, to avoid hitting the anvil 
face with the hand-hammer. Both anvil and hammer faces 
may be chipped or broken if this is not done. 

Step Two. — Heat the stock at the center and bend it over 
the horn, taking care to have the blows fall on the outside. 

Step Three. — Finish the bending operation, and cut oflF 
the ends with a hardie. If the ends are crooked they may be 
straightened on the hardie, as shown in Fig. 30. 




Fig. 30. 



Exercise 3. 



Plate III. 



(D 




\j 



IT 



^ i 



J_i 



0) 

|- 

n 



IZ 




nl 



38 DRAWING-OUT, BENDING, AND TWISTING 

Exercise 4. Beam Strap. (Plate IV.) 

Step One. — As with any bent shape, the length of stock 
required for this exercise is determined by measuring along 
the center line of the finished shape, i. e., along the dotted line 
in 3. The location of the right-angle bend and the beginning 
and end of the twist should be marked with a center-punch. 
This is done on the edge of the stock before it is heated. A 
cold chisel should not be used for marking, since the cut ex- 
pands and starts a crack. 

Step Two. — Take a short high heat at the center-punch 
mark where the piece is to be bent, and lay the stock on the 
anvil at the rounded edge, as shown in Fig. A. The center- 
punch mark should not come quite in line with the outer edge 
of the anvil, for the stock has a tendency to move forward 
during the bending operation. In order to make the bend as 
short as possible the bar should be firmly held down on the 
anvil with a sledge. Strike the end as indicated, and bend the 
stock to a right angle. 

Step Three. — Square up the corner by placing the exer- 
cise on the anvil, as in Fig. B, and striking it in the manner 
indicated by the arrows. It should also be reversed on the 
anvil and struck on the end, as shown in Fig. C. By striking 
at E the stock is made thicker at F , forming a fillet on the in- 
side corner. Care should be taken during this operation to 
keep the angle at or greater than 90° lest the stock be upset, as 
in Fig. D, forming a cold-shut or crack on the inside corner. 
This would make the angle weak. After the corner has been 
upset and hammered to shape, it is smoothed up with a flatter. 

Caution. — Do not try to square the stock by placing it over 
a corner of the anvil, as it will then be hammered too thin. 

Step Four. — Take a uniform yellow heat on the stock, and 
place one end in a vise. Give it a quarter-turn with a pair of 
flat-jawed tongs in the manner already described. 



Exercise 4. 



Plate IV. 



BEAM STRAP 

Stock'. I xli xl2 wroT iron or machine steel 



© 



1 



-12 



25 



Tig A 



ng. B 



3i 



3 C 



Fig C F 



Fig. D 



T 



® 




Cut to size 



-3i- 



TwisT thru 90* 



■7 



Exercise 5. Twisted Gate-Hook. (Plate V.) 

Step One. — Cut a piece of %Q-mch square machine steel 
to the size indicated, and mark it with a center-punch, as 
shown at i. 

Step Two.^ — To form a shoulder, heat one end of the 
stock and place it with the center-punch mark directly above 
the inner edge of the anvil. Rest the set-hammer on top of 
the piece so that its side edge is in line with the edge of the 
anvil, as in Fig. A. The stock should then be turned while 
the set-hammer is being hit, or the shoulder will be worked 
in faster on one side than on another. Care should be taken to 
keep the shoulder exactly even with the edge of the anvil. 

Step Three. — When the shoulder has been formed, as 
shown at the end D in 2, the end is hammered out square and 
then round. It is finished between top- and bottom-swages. 
The other end of the piece is shouldered and drawn out in the 
same manner. If the shoulder is not square, it may be trued 
up by inserting" the swaged end in a heading-tool, as shown in 
Fig. B, and striking on the opposite end of the stock. 

The end D is then pointed by hammering it to a square 
point, rounding ofif the corners, and cutting it to length. 

Step Four. — To bend the eye, the stock is heated uni- 
formly and the bend started over the rounded edge of the 
anvil. The square stock at the shoulder should be cooled, to 
prevent its bending. The eye is finished on the horn of the 
anvil in the same manner as the S-hook. 

The hook is bent in much the same way. About ^ inch 
of the point should be cooled and the blows allowed to fall 
on this cold part, in order to avoid marring the stock. 

Step Five. — Before twisting the middle section, center- 
punch marks should be made i^ inches from each shoulder, 
leaving i^ inches between these marks. This portion is 
heated to an even yellow and placed in a vise, as shown in 
Fig. C. With the aid of a pair of flat-jawed tongs the stock 
is given one complete turn. 

The hook should be filed while hot. to remove the scale, 
and then blackened. 

40 



Exercise 5. 



Plate V. 



GATE HOOK 



® 



Stock: 7e X je '^ il Machine 5Teel 
— -J- — - 



Center punch marks' 



HA 



_L 



T 



I 



Slightly lesa than ^' 



3^ D_ 



T ^rr-n J 




t 1: 



® 




F,g C 



3222: 



j^ — ) 



^ 



One complete turn 




5) 



CHAPTER III. 
Common Welds. 

The Lap-Weld is the one ordinarily used for joining flat, 
square, or round bars. In order that the cross-section of the 
material at the weld be the same as that of the stock, it is 
generally necessary to upset the ends before welding. 

Upsetting. — When the length of a piece of stock is de- 
creased and its cross-sectional area increased at any point, it 
is said to be upset at that point. lie fore this can be done to 
the end of a piece of wrought iron, it is necessary to bring it 
to a welding heat. A section in the middle of the stock does 
not have to be heated so much. If the upsetting is to be at 
one end, the stock should first be hammered on all sides, to 
prevent it from bursting thru the slag seams at the end. When 
the end of a short piece is to be upset, it may be done by 
holding the piece vertically with a pair of link-tongs, the hot 
end resting on the face of the anvil, and striking the top end 
with a hand-hammer. Heavy blows are necessary, and as they 
have a tendency to bend the stock it must be straightened oc- 
casionally. The end of a long piece may be upset by gripping 
the cold end with the hands and striking the hot one against 
the face of the anvil. 

The object of upsetting a piece before welding is to make 
allowance for the iron which is lost thru scaling and burning, 
and for the drawing-out caused by the hammering required 
for a sound weld. If the stock is hammered out too thin at 
the weld, it may be upset again at that point, but this is a 
more difficult operation than upsetting before welding. It is 
therefore better to upset the ends of the original bar too much 
than not enough, as the surplus stock can very quickly be 
hammered out. The amount of upsetting required depends 
entirely upon the number of heats taken in welding. Every 



USE OF FLUX 43 

time a bar of iron is brought to the welding heat there is a 
portion of the outside surface wasted on account of scaling 
and burning. The amount of material allowed for waste in 
welding therefore depends upon the number of heats required 
to make a sound weld. This allowance is generally from one- 
fourth to three-fourths of the diameter of the stock. 

Scarfing is the process of shaping the ends of stock 
so that when they are welded together a smooth joint will be 
obtained. The shapes of these scarfs depend to a large extent 
upon the character of the weld, and will be taken up in detail 
in Exercises 6 to i6. In general the parts of the scarfs which 
are placed in contact in welding should be convex, as shown 
at 3 in Plate VI. The two centers will then touch first, and 
the molten oxide will be allowed to escape. If the scarfs were 
made concave this oxide could not escape or be squeezed out, 
and the weld would be a poor and unsound one. 

Use of Fluxes in Welding. — When heating a piece of 
common iron or steel for welding, oxidation takes place and 
a thin film of oxide of iron is formed on the surface. This 
oxide, or scale, must be heated to a high temperature before 
becoming fluid enough to run ofif and permit a sound weld. 

Wrought iron may be heated enough to melt ofif this oxide 
without being burned, but steel would be injured if brought 
to such a high temperature. It is therefore necessary, when 
welding both high- and low-carbon steel, to use a flux, such 
as powdered borax, in order to lower the melting point of the 
oxide. A flux is also often used when welding wrought iron, 
but is not essential. Fluxes do not act as cements, but merely 
make the iron weldable at a lower temperature. 

Method of Using Flux. — After the pieces in the fire have 
reached a yellow heat, some flux is thrown or sprinkled on the 
scarfs, or parts to be welded, and the heating continued up to 
the welding heat. As the flux melts it flows over the scarf, 
forming a coat or covering. This dissolves the oxide already 
formed and prevents further oxidation. 



44 COMMON WELDS 

The flux used when welding wrought iron is generally 
clean, sharp sand. There are various welding compounds on 
the market, some of which contain borax and iron filings. 
Most of them contain borax, and are used mainly when weld- 
ing steel. 

Exercise 6. Practice Welds — Fagot. (Plate VI.) 

The Fagot Weld is given as an exercise in order that the 
student may (i) become familiar with welding heats, (2) 
learn to use the hand-hammer efifectively, (3) have further 
practice in the drawing-out of wrought iron, (4) and also for 
economy, since old links, rings, or pieces of scrap iron may be 
used to good advantage. 

This weld may be made by placing two or more pieces of 
iron on top of each other and welding them for their entire 
length. Another method is to bend the end of a piece of stock 
once or twice, as in la and 2a, and weld it into a solid lump. 

If a link or ring is available, it can be heated and closed 
for half its length, as in ^a. This portion is then welded and 
hammered out square. When the other end has been treated 
in the same manner, the entire piece is hammered octagonal, 
then round, and finally smoothed up between top- and bottom- 
swages. This finished piece may be used again for making a 
ring or link. 

Exercise 7. Round Lap-Weld. (Plate VII.) 

Step One. — Upset one end of each of two pieces of round 
stock for about 2 inches, as shown at i. This is done by heat- 
ing the ends to a welding heat and hitting them against the 
face of the anvil, in the manner already described. 

Step Two. — The scarf is started by placing the stock on 
the face of the anvil, with the upset portion near the rounded 



Exercise 6 



Plate VI. 



PRACTICE WELDS - EAGOT 



-25 



5rock 6 xli Wrot Iron 



Srock 8 xl3 Wrot Iron 



To be made from link or ring 

Finished sizes will depend upon stock used 



Half to be welded at a time 



@n[ 




/C 7\ After weldinq whole piece, hammer square, 
(5c,d.e . , .^ J . u 1 

octagonal, then round as shown below 



^ 



46 COMMON WELDS 

edge, and hitting it with the face of a hand-hammer. After 
a few blows the peen is used, as shown in Fig. A. These 
blows should come at an angle of about 45°, in order to force 
the material back and form a thick ridge at the heel of the 
scarf, as shown at 2. The scarf at this point should be slightly 
tapered. 

Step Three. — The scarf is finished at the rounded edge of 
the anvil with the face of the hammer. This is done to avoid 
hitting the hammer against the sharp edge of the anvil. The 
length of the scarf should be about one and one-half times 
the thickness of the bar at the upset portion. 

The scarf is worked down to a point, as shown at 3, in 
order to facilitate welding the end of the scarf. If these ends 
were very wide several blows w-ould be necessary to weld 
them, and, since they cool very rapidly, considerable skill and 
speed would be required. 

Step Four. — When heating the stock for welding have a 
good bed of hot coals. Place the short piece at the right of 
the long one, the scarfs of both being face down, and cover 
them with coke. Heat slowly, to insure a uniform tempera- 
ture thruout the scarfed portions. If one piece should heat 
faster than the other, pull it back a little from the center of 
the fire. Both pieces must be at a welding heat at the same 
time. 

When at the welding heat remove the pieces from the fire, 
taking the short piece in the right hand and the long one in 
the left. Keeping the scarf side down, give them each a quick 
blow on the horn of the anvil, to dislodge any dirt on the 
faces of the scarfs. Place the short piece on the anvil with 
the scarf up, as shown in Fig. C. This piece is not so liable 
to overbalance and fall to the floor, as sometimes happens 
when welding without assistance, if the end of the scarf comes 
nearly to the inner edge of the anvil. Steady the scarfed end 
of the other piece against the edge of the anvil, as shown in 



Exercise 7. 



Plate VII. 



ROUND LAP WELD 

Slock: f" Round Machine Steel or Wrot iron . 
1 piece about 16" and 1 piece about 10 long 



®^ 



2 



® 



F,g, A 
Method of starting scarf 




I^ 



Fig. B 
Method of finishing scorf 




Anvil 



L^|i"^_ 





Fig D Appearance of weld after 

first blow 




^ 



48 COMMON WELDS 

Fig-. C, and bring it to the desired position above the short 
piece. The end of one scarf should lap over the thick ridge, 
or heel, of the other, as in Fig. D. 

With a hand-hammer deliver a few sharp blows, to stick 
the body of the material. The ends of the scarfs should then 
be hammered down, otherwise they will become too cold and 
will not stick. If the scarfs are not thoroughly welded at the 
first heat, put the piece back into the fire and take another 
welding heat on it. 

Step Five. — After the weld has been made, the scale 
should be cleaned ofif with a file, since it pits the material. The 
bar is then finished between top- and bottom-swages. 



Exercise 8. Flat Lap- Weld. (Plate VIII.) 

Step One. — The stock is upset for about 2 inches in the 
manner previously described. 

Step Two.— The scarf is started in the same way as for 
the round lap-weld. It should not, however, taper very much 
at the end. 

Step Three. — The finished scarf should be made the same 
width as the bar at the thick ridge, and slightly tapered to- 
ward the end, as at 3. 

Step Four. — The two pieces are welded together in much 
the same manner as the round stock of Exercise 7. It is ad- 
visable, though, to use a heavy hand-hammer in welding flat 
bars. 

Step Five. — When the welding is finished, the scale should 
be cleaned off with a file and the piece smoothed up with a 
flatter. 



Exercise 8. 



Plate VIII. 



FLAT LAP WELD 



18" 



® cue 



Zl^_ 



Taper edges slightly 



® [UC 



Position of pieces on anvil 
for welding . Inner edge ' 



Anvil 

^ — 



50 COMMON WELDS 



Exercise g. Links of Chain. (Plate IX.) 

The length of the material required for a link is found by 
measuring the distance around at the center of the stock. To 
compute this distance the desired link, shown at 4, should be 
separated into two semi-circular ends and two straight con- 
necting sections. The mean diameter of the ends is i^ 
inches; so 1^4 X 3/4, or 3^-Kg inches, is required for them. 
The connecting sections are each i^ inches long. The total 
length is then S^Yiq + 2 X i^-^ = (^'^Vig inches. To this should 
be added a small amount, about ^ inch, for the waste in 
welding. 

Step One. — Square up the ends of the material, and heat 
the middle uniformly for about 3 inches. Bend it halfway on 
the horn, taking care to ha^'e the blows fall on the cold pro- 
jecting end. It should then be reversed and the other end bent 
over in the same manner, forming a U, as shown at i. The 
reason for this reversal is that if the U were formed by hitting 
on one end only that side of the U would be the shorter of 
the two. If one side should be longer than the other, it may 
be shortened by heating the semi-circular portion, placing it 
on a bottom-swage, the shorter leg being held vertical with a 
pair of link-tongs, and striking on the end of the longer leg. 

Step Two. — The ends are brought to a yellow heat and 
scarfed by placing one end on the anvil, as shown at A, and 
striking a number of blows, moving the U toward the horn 
after each one. This leaves a series of notches on the under 
side of the piece, as shown at 2. The U is then turned over, 
and the other end treated in the same manner. The scarfs 
are finished on the face of the anvil with the peen or the heel 
^of a hand-hammer. They should not be less than Yiq inch 
thick at the end, or they will cool too quickly and it will be 
almost impossible to weld them. 



Exercise 9. 



Plate IX. 



LINK5 OF CHAIN , , 

5Tock 6piece5 |x64 WroT iron _^ 



® 



(71 






FigA 
Method of Scarfing 




u 



v_y 




52 



COMMON WELDS 



Step Three. — Bring the ends together, as at 3, taking care 
to have the end of the top scarf pointed toward the right. If 
it points to the left, the scarf is left-hand and is harder to 
weld. The link should be shaped so that the end to be welded 
is narrower than the other. The stock is then less liable to 
be hammered small on either side of the weld, and the semi- 
circular end will be about the right size when the weld is 
finished. 

Step Four. — Take a welding heat and weld the joint with 
a few quick blows of the hand-hammer. The link is finished 
on the horn of the anvil. 

Step Five. — When joining- links, the connecting one is 
scarfed and its ends brought together ready for welding. The 




Fig-. 31- 



end A of the link is then heated, the scarfs spread apart, as 
shown in Fig. 31, the links slipped on, and the scarfs brought 
together again. This connecting link is welded in the same 
manner as the others. 

Welded Ring. — A ring formed from round stock may be 
made in two ways, i. e., by scarfing before or after bending it 
into shape. The second of these is the less difficult, as the 
scarfs are then more easily fitted and the stock on either side 
of the weld is not so likely to become thin. 

The amount of material required to make it is computed 



WELDED RING 53 

from its mean diameter. For the following two exercises this 
mean diameter is 3^4 inches, as shown in Plate X. The mean 
circumference of the ring is then 3>4 X 3^, or approximately 
10^4 inches. To this must be added an allowance for waste 
in welding, depending on the number of heats necessary. 
For a student this would be about ^ or >2 inch, so the total 
length of stock required is lo^ inches. 



54 COMMON WELDS 



Exercise lo. Ring — Round Lap- Weld. (Plate X.) 

Step One. — Upset the ends of the stock until its length is 
9^ inches. 

Step Two. — Scarf the ends as shown at 2 in the same 
manner as for a simple lap-weld for round stock. 

Step Three. — Heat one-third of the stock and bend it over 
the large part of the horn, keeping- the straight side of the 
scarfed end toward the right. Strike on the projecting end, 
as shown, in order not to mar the material. The other end is 
bent in the same manner, making the exercise appear as 
shown at 3. 

Step Four. — Heat the center section and complete the 
bending by holding the piece upright on the anvil with a pair 
of link-tongs and knocking the scarfs together. The point of 
the top scarf should look toward the right, as at 4. H the 
scarfs do not meet squarely, shape the ring on the horn. 
Hammer the scarfs close together on the face of the anvil, so 
that no dirt can get in between them. 

Step Five. — Heat and weld the ring in the same manner as 
a link. When the welding is finished, smooth the ring on the 
horn of the anvil with a top-swage. To make the ring cir- 
cular, heat it all over and drive it down on the cone with a 
hand-hammer. 



Exercise lo. 



Plate X. 



RING 



LAP-WELD SCARF 
Stock -jxlOl- WroT iron 






© 



"Upset to 9 8" 



u 



->-| About 



® 



Method of Bending 






( ^O ) c 



J 



56 COMMON WELDS 



Exercise ii. Ring — Link Scarf, (Plate XI.) 

Step One. — Upset the ends of the stock until its length is 
9^ inches. 

Step Two. — Bend the ends to the form shown at 2 in the 
same manner as in the previous exercise. 

Step Three.— Heat the middle section and bend the ends 
to within a short distance of each other, as at 3. 

Step Four. — Scarf the ends in the same way as for a link. 

Step Five. — Bring the scarfed ends together, as at 5. 

Step Six.^ — Weld the two ends and finish the ring in the 
same manner as in the previous exercise. 



Exercise 12. Forged Hook. (Plate XII.) 

Forged hooks are made from tool steel, Norway iron, or 
machine steel. The one in this exercise is to be made from 
^-inch round machine steel. 

Step One. — Cut the stock 6 inches long. Heat -about i>4 
inches at one end to a yellow heat and upset it as at i, de- 
creasing its length to 53^ inches. A longer piece may be used 
more advantageously, since the end can then be upset and the 
eye finished without the use of tongs. If a long piece is used, 
care should be taken to mark it 6 inches from the end with a 
center-punch before upsetting. 

Step Two. — Flatten the upset end until it is ^ inch thick, 
as at 2. 

Step Three. — Use ^-inch top- and bottom-fullers or a 
necking-tool to fuller the neck to the form shown at 3. 

Step Four. — Round the end or head by placing one cor- 
ner of it on the face of the anvil and using the necking-tool 
on the shoulder, as in Fig. 32. Treat the other corner in the 
same manner. Rounding may be finished with the hand- 
hammer by holding the piece over the rounded edge of the 



Exercise ii. 



Plate XL 



RING 



LINK SCARF 
Stock . 2 X 10 4 round wrof iron 



-lOf— 



© 



Upset to 9 1 



3 






58 



COMMON WELDS 



anvil and striking it as shown in Fig. 33. This end should be 
forged as nearly round as practicable before the hole is 
punched in it. 

Step Five. — Punch a ^-inch hole in the forged end or 
head, as at 5, and draw the neck out square with the hand- 
hammer. While doing this allow the eye to extend over the 
rounded edge of the anvil, in order to prevent the filleted cor- 
ners from becoming sharp. 

Step Six. — Round the inside edges of the hole over the 
horn, as shown in Fig. 34, and finish or smooth the outside 





Fig. 34- 



with a 5^-inch top-swage. Make the hole circular by driving 
a tapered pin through it. The finished eye should then appear 
as though made from round stock. 

The neck is hammered round and finished with ;)4-iiich 
tapered top- and bottom-swages. If, when this is done, the 
stock is too long, it should be cut to the length given at 6. 

Step Seven. — Draw down the end to a square point, work- 
ing at the rounded edge of the anvil and holding the stock at 
such an angle with the anvil face as will bring the point in 
the center line. 

Step Eight.— Round ofif the corners of the point, as at 8. 
The length of a hook from the neck, or shoulder, of the eye 
to the extreme end should be eight times the diameter of its 



Exercise 12. 



Plate XII. 



rOROED HOOK 



Stock: •|'x6"round machine steel 



5D 



® 



® 



® 



Use i Top 4 boiiom fuller or necking rod- 



rE-B 



^H"-*r 



® 



® 




60 COMMON WELDS 

largest cross-section. This length is 6 inches for the hook 
given. 

Step Nine. — Bend the point over the horn, as shown at 9. 

Step Ten. — In bending the hook, heat it for about 4 inches 
at the center, and cool the neck and point. Place it on the 
large part of the horn, with the cold tip projecting over. A 
sledge should be held on top of it, in order to prevent it from 
slipping over the horn too far when hit. Strike the project- 
ing tip with a hand-hammer, moving the hook toward the 
point of the horn as the bending progresses. It should be 
bent to the form shown at 10. If it is necessary to change the 
shape of the hook on the horn, a top-swage should be used. 
This leaves the hook free from marks of the hand-hammer. 

Step Eleven. — Take a short heat at the neck and bend 
the eye back over the horn. The finished hook, shown at 11, 
should be heated and the scale removed with a file. It may 
then be attached with a link to the chain of Exercise 9. 



Exercise 13. Common Eye-Bolt. (Plate XIII.) 

Step One. — Cut a piece of ^-inch round wrought iron 
12%. inches long. Heat one end to a welding heat and scarf 
it, as shown at i. 

Step Two. — Bend the scarf over the rounded edge of the 
anvil and mark it with a center-punch, as shown at 2. 

Step Three. — Heat about 7 inches of the stock at the 
scarfed end to a uniform yellow heat. The bend is then 
started by placing the stock with the center-punch mark above 
the rounded edge of the anvil, and striking on the projecting 
end with the peen of a hand-hammer. 

Step Four. — Finish the bending on the horn, striking on 
the scarf, to avoid marring the stock. 

Step Five. — Place a drift-pin, or a piece of round stock 



Exercise 13. 



Plate XIII. 



COMMON ElYE BOLT 



Stock. ^ Round WroTlron 






^ 






4" 




y^ Center punch marks 



\. 



Start outside of bend opposite 
center punch marks 





It 



-^ 



62 



COMMON WELDS 



slightly larger than the finished hole, in the eye and bring the 
scarf and shank together, as at 5. 

Step Six. — Heat the stock slowly to a welding heat, and 
weld down the scarfed end. A necking-tool or a top- fuller is 
used in rounding the shoulder. The welding should be finished 
with a hand-hammer at the rounded edge of the anvil. 
Smooth up the stock at the weld with a top- and a bottom- 
swage, and drive a drift-pin into the hole to make it symmet- 
rical. While still hot the scale should be removed with a file. 




One of the commonest applications of this exercise is the 
clevis shown in Fig. 35. This is formed by making an eye at 
each end of a piece of stock, and bending it into the form of 
a U. 



Exercise 14. Common Hinge. (Plate XIV.) 

Step One. — Scarf the end of a piece of wrought iron 
^i X 1% inch X II inches, as shown at i, and make a center- 
punch mark on one edge 4^/4 inches from the end. 

Step Two. — Heat about 5 inches of the piece at the 
scarfed end, and place it on the anvil with the scarfed side 
down. The center-punch mark should come almost in line 
with the outer rounded edge of the anvil. Bend as at 2. 

Step Three. — Continue the bending on the horn, and close 
the eye on a pin which is slightly larger than the finished hole. 



Exercise 14. 



Plate XIV. 



COMMON MIN6L 



Stock: 4 XI4 X 11 WroT iron 



•" 


4r 




1 


y 


i 


f 




°-ir 

T 



11 



Width of end of scarf should be slightly Ies5 than width of stock. 



© 



1 L^ 



[ZJC 



Center punch mark-, 





® 



\^, 



64 COMMON WELDS 

Step Four. — In placing the piece in the fire have the scarf 
down, in order to avoid burning the eye. When the piece is at 
the welding heat, it should be removed from the fire and laid 
on the anvil with the scarf up and the eye against the rounded 
edge of the anvil. If this were not done and it were welded 
over the sharp edge of the anvil, the neck would have a sharp 
corner instead of being rounded, as shown at 4. The weld- 
ing is done with a heavy hand-hammer. 

After the welding has been completed, a pin should be 
driven into the hole and a top-swage used to smooth the eye. 
A flatter may be used to smooth the stock at the weld. 



Exercise 15. Flat Ring. ( Plate XV.) 

Step One. — Cut a piece oi % X i^-inch wrought iron 14 
inches long, as shown, and heat one end for about 2}4 inches. 
Upset it at an angle, as shown at i. If, while doing this, most 
of the upsetting occurs at the tip, the extreme end should be 
cooled ofif. To decrease the width at the upset portion it should 
be hammered on the longer edge at A. This will keep both 
edges the same in thickness. Upset the other end in the same 
manner. 

Step Two. — Scarf the ends as shown at 2, taking care to 
have the scarfs on opposite sides of the stock. 

Step Three. — Heat one end of the stock for about 4 
inches, cool the corner B, and bend the end over the horn. 
The hammer blows should fall on B. Bend the other end in 
the same manner. 

Step Four. — Heat the center of the stock, and finish the 
bending in the same manner as for the ring in Exercise i. 
The scarfs should come squarely together and be closed 
tightly, as at 4, to prevent dirt from getting in between them. 

Step Five. — Bring the scarfs slowly to the welding heat, 
and weld them together on the face of the anvil with a heavy 



Exercise 15. 



Plate XV. 



FLAT RING 





Stock 


\\\^\\4" Wrot Iron 












U 

A 




14" 

Upset to I2i" 




A 




®'\ 






1 


l\ 




-'•sp— 








-,|. 


-, 


II 11 








r-^''" 




1 




D 




1^8 


B 


(?) -vv 










/- 












^^ 








:^y 





I I 



66 COMMON WELDS 

hand-hammer. Finish the edges on the horn, then smooth the 
sides with a flatter. The ring should be made circular on a 
cone, and the scale removed with a file. 

Exercise i6. Band Ring. (Plate XVL) 

Step One. — Cut the stock to length, and upset each end 
for about 2 inches. 

Step Two. — Scarf the ends the same as for a flat weld, 
taking care to have the scarfs come on opposite sides of the 
stock, as shown at 2. 

Step Three.— Heat the piece, and bend it into shape in the 
same manner as the ring of Exercise i. 

Step Four. — Bring the scarfs tightly together, as at 4. 

Step Five. — Heat the scarfs slowly, to prevent the outer 
one from burning before the inner one is hot enough to weld. 
Weld the ring over the horn of the anvil, and finish it with a 
flatter. It should then be heated uniformly thruout, and 
rounded on a cone. In order to prevent it from becoming 
tapered while doing this, it must be reversed on the cone and 
expanded equally from both sides. 

Bolts are made in three dift'erent ways, i. e., by forging, 
upsetting, or welding. The first of these methods is ordinarily 
used for special bolts and those that are to be finished or 
turned to size. Such bolts are forged from stock having a 
diameter equal to that of the head, and are therefore the 
stongest kind made. The second method, in which the stock 
is upset to form the head, is the one most commonly used for 
both hand- and machine-made bolts. In the third metliod the 
head is formed by welding a ring of stock around the stem. 
If equally well made, an upset-head bolt is stronger than a 
welded-head bolt. 

The size of a bolt is given by the diameter and length of 
the shank. Thus a i x 12-inch bolt means one with a shank r 



Exercise i6. 



Plate XVI. 



BAND RING 



® 







Stock: £x l^'x 13 g" WroT Iron 










i 




'"i* 




i^''" 


K — Z'- 








'^a 


— il 




L" 


II 


- |f,„| 1 


h- 


o ' " 




_l ! ■ ,l-_J 


124. 




14 1 






j 














i 


II 


y-Kv, 

















H wh 




(D 






68 



COMMON WELDS 



inch in diameter and 12 inches long from the under side of the 
head to the end. The dimensions of a bolt-head are governed 
by the diameter of the shank, and are entirely independent of 
the length. For square and hexagonal bolt-heads, the distance 
across the flats is equal to 1^2 times the diameter of the shank 
plus % inch, and the thickness of the head is equal to the 
diameter of the shank. Thus a i-inch bolt should have a head 
i^Xi + /^,ori^ inches across the flats, and i inch thick. 
These are the dimensions for rough heads, each dimension for 
a finished head being ^g inch less than for a rough head. 

Heading-Tool. — For squaring-up the under side of the 
head on a bolt, a heading-tool (Fig. 36) is required. In use 
this is placed on the face of the anvil, so that while the head 
of the bolt is being forged the shank can project down thru 
the heading-tool and the hardie-hole. The hole in this tool 
should be slightly lar.ger than the stock for which it is in- 
tended, in order that a shank, when heated, may drop thru it 
easily. For this reason a difl^erent heading-tool is required 
for each size of round stock used. 





Fig. 36. 
Heading-Tool. 



Fig. 37- 
Cupping-Tool. 



Cupping-Tool, — Bolt heads generally have the top corners 
rounded, or chamfered. This is ordinarily done with a cup- 
ping-tool (Fig. 37), but a top-swage, or a hand-hammer may 
be used. 



Exercise 17. Upset-Head Bolt. (Plate XVIL) 

Step One. — Cut the stock to length, and square both ends. 
Heat one end for about 2 inches to a yellow heat. Place the 



Exercise 17. 



Plate XVII. 



UPSET HEAD BOLTS 



Stock for square head bolt: fxSi round machine sieel 



1^--- 



- Upset to 74- 




nzB 



© 



Heading tool 



o 






Ll 



Stock for hexagonal head bolt: i x9" round machine steel 



■11— I 



-Upset to 7a -i 








70 COMMON WELDS 

hot end on the face of the anvil, holding the piece vertical with 
a pair of link-tongs, and strike on the cold end with a heavy 
hand-hammer. Care should be taken to keep the stock straight 
while upsetting. 

Step Two. — Bring the upset end to a high heat, and insert 
the shank in a heading-tool. Form the head by flattening the 
upset portion, as shown at 2. To aid in keeping the shank at 
the center of the head, a circle with a radius about ^ inch 
greater than that of the hole should be drawn with chalk on 
the face of the tool. The student can then tell when one side 
of the head is out too far. 

Step Three. — Forge the head square or hexagonal on the 
face of the anvil. Insert the shank in a heading-tool and 
chamfer the top corners with a cupping-tool. The shank 
should be finished between top- and bottom-swages. 



Exercise i8. Welded-Head Bolt. (Plate XVIII.) 

Step One. — If a piece of stock the required size is not 
available, draw-out a large piece to the size shown at i. 

Step Two. — Cut off the end at an angle on the hardie, and 
make another cut half-way thru the stock at the point indi- 
cated. 

Step Three. — Bend the drawn-out portion over the horn 
as shown at 3. 

Step Four. — Break oft' the bent portion, and finish the 
bending over a piece of cold ^-inch round stock. This collar 
should then be hammered approximately square, and made to 
appear as shown at 4. If it were made round, the joint might 
show on one side when finished, making a poor appearing 
head. 

Step Five. — Bring one end of the shank to a welding heat, 
and upset it in the cold collar, as at 5. Before starting to 
weld it be sure that the shank will slip thru the heading-tool. 



Exercises i8 .v- 19. 



Plate X\ I 



WELDED HEAD BOLT 

Stock for collar . | round WroT Iron 



(D 



KnWJ 



c 



20: 



m 



b: 



2^ 



^KlS 



® [ 




Stem o f bolt: 6^X4 round Wrot Iron 



^m 




UupseT 



stem on cold collar 






FORGED BOLT 



® 



^- 


5tock; 


l-^x 1:^x75 "r;^achine STeel 




^- 


?s" 


i Jr-T^w^ 


-iv 


■^8 


-' 1 ,''' i i^ ® 


1 



M^H 



Center punch marks 

Chisel marks ^ Use ^ Top and bot tom fulle rs 



® 



r^ 'd;- ' 



TV 



72 co:mmon welds 

Step Six. — Heat the head slowly, to prevent the collar 
from burning, and weld it by hammering on all four sides. 
Finish it in a heading-tool in the same manner as an upset 
head. 

If there is too much stock on the bolt head, forge it to the 
proper size across the flats, and cut the surplus stock ofif of 
the end with a hot eve-chisel. 



Exercise 19. Forged Bolt. (Plate XVIII.) 

It is necessary for two students to work together on this 
exercise, so a piece of stock long enough to make two bolts 
should be used. 

Step One. — Cut the stock to length, and mark it with a 
center-punch and a chisel as indicated. 

Step Two. — Fuller one end, as shown at 2. 

Step Three. — Draw-out the end A to size under a trip- 
hammer. 

Step Four. — Fuller and hammer out the other end in the 
same manner. 

Step Five. — Cut the stock thru the center along the dotted 
line. Reheat, and insert the shank of one end in a heading- 
tool, finishing the head in the same manner as the upset head. 

The shank and under side of the head of a forged bolt are 
generally turned to the finished size in the machine shop. In 
some cases, however, such bolts are forged to the required 
sizes, so that no machine work is necessary. 



CHAPTER IV. 
Special Welds. 

The Butt Weld is made by rounding the ends of two pieces 
of stock and driving them together at a welding heat, as shown 
in Fig. 38. The purpose in rounding the ends is to permit 
squeezing the molten oxide out of the joint. If they were 
concave, impurities would be held between the two pieces, 
making an unsound weld. 

When the pieces of stock are short the butting, or weld- 
ing, is generally done on the anvil, but with long pieces it is 
done in the fire. Long pieces are placed end to end in the fire, 
and when the welding heat has been reached they are driven 
together. In doing this the blacksmith holds one of them to 
steady it, while the helper strikes on the projecting end of the 
other. When thft pieces are stuck together the resulting bar 
is removed from the fire, and hammered to size on the anvil. 
It is then smoothed between top- and bottom-swages. 



Fig. 38. Butt-Weld. 

A butt weld may be used on i^-inch stock or larger. It is 
not as safe or as strong as a lap weld, but has the advantage 
of requiring no upsetting and scarfing of ends. All the up- 
setting necessary occurs during the welding process. 

V-Weld. — Another weld suitable for large-sized stock is 
the V-weld. The ends of the stock are first cut with a hot 
chisel to the form shown in Fig. 39. The pieces are then 
placed end to end in the fire and heated. The square end of 
the short, chisel-pointed piece should project over the edge of 
the forge. When the stock is at the welding heat, this end is 
struck with a backing-hammer or a sledge, depending on the 



74 



SPECIAL WELDS 



size of the stock. This upsets and welds the ends together. 
The joint is then hammered to size and swaged on the anvil. 

The V-weld is suitable for welding round or square steel 
and wrought iron. Besides being easy to make, on account 
of the elimination of upsetting and scarfing, it forms an ex- 




Fig. 39. V-Weld. 

tremely strong joint. It is not suitable for stock less than 
13^ inches in diameter, as smaller stock bends while the pieces 
are being driven together in the fire. 

The Jump- Weld is one ordinarily used by shipsmiths on 
marine or ship work. Its applications are numerous, but its 
main principle is the joining of one end of round, square, or 
rectangular stock to some point on the side of a piece of stock 
of the same or of a different size. 

In making the "jump," shown at A in Fig. 40, the end of 
the stock is brought to the welding heat and hammered on the 





Fig. 40. Jump Weld. 

sides, to prevent it from bursting while scarfing it. If the 
piece is a short one, the scarfing may be done by standing it 
on end on the anvil and hammering the hot end so as to form 
a flange, similar to the one shown at A. 



SPLIT-WELD 75 

If this piece is to be "jumped," or welded, to a piece of 
flat stock, the latter must be made thicker where the joint is to 
be, in order to allow for hammering. This can be done either 
by upsetting the flat stock or by forging it from a thicker 
piece. An indentation is made at this point with a bob-punch, 
as shown at B, to accommodate the flanged end on the 
"jump." 

The two pieces are generally brought to the welding heat 
in separate fires. The flat piece is then placed on the anvil 
and the "jump" in position on it. The end of the "jump" is 
struck with a sledge, and the flange quickly welded down with 
a top- fuller, making the joint appear as shown at C, Fig. 40. 

The Split- Weld is used for welding together the ends of 
thin stock, such as brake-bands and sheet steel. If an ordi- 
nary lap-weld were used for this purpose, the time lost in get- 
ting the scarfed ends in position for welding would permit 
thin stock to cool, making welding difficult. With the split- 




B 

Fig. 41. Split-Weld. 

weld the scarfs are in position when placed on the anvil, and 
may be hammered together immediately. 

The ends of the pieces to be joined are upset and scarfed 
or tapered to a blunt edge. They are then split down the cen- 
ter, as shown at A, Fig. 41, for a distance depending on the 
thickness of the stock, but ordinarily about % inch. One-half 
of each end is bent up and the other half down, as at ^. The 
ends are then heated, pushed tightly together, and closed down 



76 



SPECIAL WELDS 



on each other, as shown at B in Fig. 41. The welding is done 
in the regular way. 

Split-Weld for Heavy Stock.— A split-weld suitable for 
heavy stock is shown in Fig. 42. In making this weld the 
ends of the pieces are upset and scarfed, as at A, one end 




Fig. 42. Split- Weld for Heavy Stock. 

being pointed and the other split and shaped like a Y. The 
pieces are then driven together and closed down, one on the 
other, ready for welding, as shown at B, Fig. 42. 

This weld, or one very similar to it, is often used when 




C D 

Fig. 43. Welding Tip on a Pick. 

welding tool steel to iron or to machinery steel. An example 
of this is the "steeling" of the Norway iron body of a pick, 
shown at A, Fig. 43. The ends of this body are spUt and 
shaped as shown at B. The piece to be welded on is about 
1/2 X I inch and from 4 to 5 inches long. It is pointed and 



SPLIT-WELD 77 

notched with a chisel, as at C, to prevent it from falHng out 
while heating. The two pieces are then driven together and 
the ends of the Y closed down, as shown at D. They are 
heated slowly, to prevent the tool steel from being burned, 
and welded under a trip-hammer or with a sledge. The end 
of the pick is drawn to a point under the trip-hammer, and 
made smooth with a flatter. It is then reheated, hardened, 
and the temper color drawn to a dark blue. 



78 SPECIAL WELDS 

Exercise 20. T-Weld. (Plate XIX.) 

Step One. — Cut off a piece of stock for the leg of the T, 
and upset it as shown. 

Step Two. — Start the scarf with the hand-hammer, as 
at 2. 

Step Three. — Bring the scarf to the form shown at 3 
with a 3^-inch top-fuller. 

Step Four. — Finish this scarf with the same fuller, then 
smooth it with a hand-hammer. 

Step Five. — Upset the cross-piece at the center, as shown 

at 5- 

Step Six. — Form the scarf as at 6 with the bob-punch of 
Fig. 16. This can be done by using the peen of a hand-ham- 
mer and striking on its face with a heavier hammer ; but it is 
rather dangerous, as the face of the hand-hammer is liable to 
break unless the heavier hammer is wielded by an expert. 

Step Seven. — Bring the scarfed portions of the two pieces 
to the welding heat and weld them, using a hammer to stick 
them together and a necking-tool or fuller to weld down the 
edges of the scarf. In removing the pieces from the fire for 
welding, the cross-piece should be taken in the right hand 
and the other piece in the left. This leaves the right hand 
free for hammering after the pieces have been placed in po- 
sition. A student should practice putting the pieces together 
while cold, before attempting to weld them. 

After the welding has been finished the stock should be 
smoothed between top- and bottom-swages, and the scale re- 
moved with a file. The ends are then trimmed off, making 
the dimensions of the T as shown at 7. 

With flat stock the scarfs for a T-weld are made in the 
same manner. 



Exercise 20. 



Plate XIX. 



T WELD 



Stock. 1 piece ^xT^ and 1 piece ^ x9 long WroT Iron 



® 



9"~ 



2"--^ 



Upset to 7^ 



3 



O 



o 



I^ ^ 



© 



® 




w 



-7z 



-H~A- — 



K 6- 



Section through A A 



"^ n 



80 SPECIAL WELDS 



Exercise 21. Angle Weld. (Plate XX.) 

Step One. — Cut and upset the short piece for the angle to 
the size shown at i. Since the stock has to be upset for a con- 
siderable distance from the end, the tip should be partially 
cooled in water, to prevent the upsetting from taking place 
mostly at that point. 

Step Two. — Scarf this piece with a bob-punch or the peen 
of a hammer, as shown at 2. The length of this scarf should 
be slightly less than the width of the one on the other piece, 
so that the lip A (4) will lap over on the thick portion of the 
stock. 

Step Three. — Cut and upset the other piece to the form 
shown at 3. 

Step Four. — Start the scarf on this piece in the same 
manner as for the flat lap-weld. It should, however, be al- 
lowed to widen out, in order to furnish material for the lip A, 
which is made by placing the stock on edge on the anvil with 
the scarf projecting over the rounded edge and hitting the 
upper edge with a hand-hammer. The top edge should then 
appear straight, as shown. 

Step Five. — After bringing the two scarfed ends to a 
welding heat remove the pieces from the fire, holding the 
short one (2) in the right hand and the long one (4) in the 
left. Weld the joint with a heavy hand-hammer, and finish it 
with a flatter. The scale should then be removed with a file, 
and the ends cut off to length with a hot chisel. 



Exercise 21. 



Plate XX. 



ANGLE WEILD 



® 



Srock ■ s >.\z Wror iron 



Upset from 51 to 4a 



-II- 



-t- 



1" 



iL.A 



® 



_ 


_7| 





— H 




W///A 






= 




Upset from 8' to 7| 




— ^'^ 








\,^ 
















/A 


f 










'on 
i 



'Ui^ 



n 



® 



Cut to size- 






CHAPTER V. 

Hammer Work. 

In making forgings larger than the exercises previously 
described in this book, some type of power hammer is invari- 
ably used. Those commonly found in technical schools are 
the trip- or belt-hammer and the steam-hammer. 

The Trip- or Belt-Hammer (Fig. 44) is used for hammer- 
ing medium or small-sized forgings. Its size is designated by 
the weight of the falling parts, i. e., in a 125-pound hammer 
the combined weight of the falling parts is 125 pounds. 

The frame of the machine surrounds the anvil, or die 
block, B, but the two are usually mounted on separate foun- 
dations. This is done so that the continual use of the ham- 
mer will not have a tendency to break the frame, and also in 
order to permit adjustment of the position of the lower die. 

This type of hammer is belt driven, the blows being reg- 
ulated by means of the foot-treadle, T. This gives very good 
control of the hammer except at starting, when the blows are 
sometimes rather jerky. As hammering continues the blows 
become more uniform. A student should receive special in- 
structions in the manipulation of a trip-hammer before start- 
ing to use it. 

When drawing-out stock with a trip-hammer the material 
should be placed at the center of the dies. If it is placed at 
one side there will be an undue stress on the springs, and they 
will be likely to break. 

Hollow-bit tongs are generally used for holding work at 
the power-hammer, as a firm grip can be obtained with them 
on either round, square, or flat material. Flat-jawed tongs 
should not be used, as they give a very poor grip when the 
jaws are in the vertical position. To maintain a firm grip, a 



POWER-HAMMERS 



83 



link should be slipped over the handles of the tongs, so as to 
hold them close together. 

A trip-hammer may also be employed for making drop 
forgings by using special dies that may be made of cast iron. 




Fig. 44. Trip-Hammer. 



Fig. 45. Steam-Hammer. 



This type of hammer has the advantage over a steam- 
hammer in the matter of lower first cost and great economy 
in operation. It is not, however, so well suited to very heavy 
work. 

The Steam-Hammer is generally made in larger sizes than 



84 HAMMER WORK 

the trip-hammer, the combined weight of the fahing parts 
ranging from a few hundred to several thousand pounds. A 
500-pound hammer is shown in Fig. 45. 

As the name impUes, this hammer is driven by steam. The 
latter enters at the top of the cylinder, C, and forces down the 
ram, R. The blow is controlled and regulated by means of the 
levers, A and E, which are operated by an assistant. If the 
blacksmith works alone, the hammer may be controlled by 
means of the foot-treadle. 

The ram, R, and the dies, D, are generally placed at an 
angle of 45° with the front of the frame. This permits the 
hammering of material either across or lengthwise on the die 
without interference. As with the trip-hammer, the die-block, 
B, rests on a separate foundation from that of the frame. 

Finishing Allowance. — Forgings made under a hammer 
are often machined or finished to size. For this reason a cer- 
tain allowance should be made for finishing them. The 
amount of this allowance varies from ys inch on small forg- 
ings to }i inch on large ones. Take as an example a shaft 
which is to be finished 8 inches in diameter. It should be 
forged to a diameter of from 8^ to 8^ inches. 



Exercise 22. Forged Open-End Wrench. (Plate XXI.) 

When making this exercise it is necessary for two students 
to work together, as it is inconvenient to make such a wrench 
alone. Considerable time will also be saved in this way. 

Step One. — Cut oflf a piece of machine steel to the size in- 
dicated, and mark it with a center-punch, as shown at i. A 
piece 4^ inches long would be enough to make this wrench, 
but it would be hard to hold while being worked under a trip- 
hammer, as the tongs would become hot and afiford a poor 
grip. There should be enough of a tong hold to prevent 



Exercise 22. 



Plate XXI. 



FOROEID OPEN END WRENCH 

Stock- I X I4 X 9j machine steel 



© 



'•♦l4fJ*-i*':i-4r— "- 



® 



X 



T 



J. 



:^ 



Center punch marks 
for fullering 



Use 2 top and 
bottom fullers 



w 



Jlj* 



n 



5) E^^'» 



®Cut off along dotted 
line in (D then cut 
corners as shown tZ 



1- 



® 



Center punch mark 



8) Punch I hole 



9) Enlarge hole to ^ 




Qd) Finish with file 



yj^- 




m^ 



— 7 



86 • HAMMER WORK 

the jaws of the tongs from being caught between the dies. 
It is therefore best to use a piece of stock 9^ inches long. 
This will give enough material for two wrenches, with an 
allowance for a short tong hold. Remember to use hollow-bit 
tongs. Flat-jawed tongs are unsafe. 

Step Two. — Use ^-inch top- and bottom- fullers to make 
the grooves shown at 2. To insure uniformity in the depth of 
these marks the stock should be turned over several times 
when fullering. 

Step Three. — Draw-out the handle under the trip-ham- 
mer, leaving it wider than the finished size, to allow for swag- 
ing the edges. 

Step Four. — Use 3^-inch top- and bottom-fullers on the 
other end, as shown at 4. 

Step Five. — Draw-out this end to provide for a tong hold 
when making the second wrench. 

Step Six. — Cut off the stock with a hot chisel along the 
dotted line shown at 5. The corners should then be cut off, to 
facilitate rounding the head. 

Step Seven. — Round the head by placing it on a i^-inch 
bottom-swage and using a i-inch top- fuller on the neck or 
fillet. A set-hammer or a ^-inch top-fuller can be used for 
rounding the circular part adjacent to the handle. Finish 
shaping with a hand-hammer, leaving the head ^ inch thick. 

Step Eight. — Punch a ^-inch hole thru the head at the 
center-punch mark shown at 7. 

Step Nine. — Enlarge this hole to T/^-'mch diameter by 
driving in a drift-pin. If when doing this the stock becomes 
thinner at one side, that side should be cooled before enlarg- 
ing the hole further. This equalizes the thickness of the 
stock around the hole. Thin the head with a flatter to %6 
inch. 

Step Ten. — Place a suitable sheet-iron template on top of 
the exercise, and mark with a cold chisel the lines for the 



OPEN-END WRENCH 87 

opening in the head, as shown by the dotted Hnes at 9. These 
marks should make an angle of 15° with the handle of the 
wrench. The opening in the head is then cut with a hot chisel 
and the head hammered so as to make it ^ inch thick. 

Square the inside of the jaws on a saddle, as shown in 
Fig. 46. If the ends are too long they should be cut to the 



Fig. 46. 

correct length on the saddle, in order to prevent them from 
becoming too thin. 

Finish the edges of the handle between 5^ -inch top- and 
bottom-swages and the faces with a flatter. After the wrench 
has cooled the inside of the jaws should be filed to fit a nut. 
The wrench is then case-hardened, as described in Chapter VT. 



Exercise 23. Flat-Jawed Tongs. (Plates XXII -XXIII.) 

Step One. — Cut a piece of machine steel for the jaws, 
and mark it as shown at i. 

Step Two. — Heat one end and place it on the anvil with 
the center-punch mark at the rounded edge, as shown in Fig. 
A. Hammer it as indicated, gradually raising the cold end 
until it is parallel with the face of the anvil, as shown by the 
dotted lines. This forms the shoulder, shown at 2. If the 
stock were held flat on the anvil when starting this shoulder, 
it would probably move forward after each blow, thus making 
the shoulder a poor one. 



88 HAMMER WORK 

Step Three. — Give the stock a quarter turn to the left, 
and place it on the anvil as shown in Fig. B. Hammer out 
the stock for the eye, taking care to have the blows fall di- 
rectly above the edge of the anvil. This is done to prevent the 
jaw from bending upward while hammering. 

When placing the stock on the anvil for hammering the 
eye, it should never be turned to the right. This would make 
the tongs left-handed. In the finished tongs the handle of the 
top jaw should look toward the right. 

Step Four. — With a ^-inch top- or bottom- fuller make a 
mark as shown at 4. Form the second jaw on the other end 
of the stock in the same manner. The stock should then be 
cut through the center at the chisel mark, as shown at 4 in 
Plate XXIV. 

Step Five. — Draw-out the stub end (to which the handle 
is to be welded ) on the anvil, and scarf it, as shown at 5. 
Several cuts should be made on the face of the scarf with a 
hardie, to prevent the pieces from slipping apart when 
welding. 

Step Six. — Cut a piece of stock long enough to make both 
handles, and upset it at the ends, as shown at 6. 

Step Seven. — Scarf the ends of this piece as shown. If 
this stock is also of machine steel, the scarfs must be nicked 
in the same manner as those on the jaws. 

Step Eight. — Weld the jaws on the ends of this piece, 
then cut it at the center. Finish the portion of the handle 
near the eye with a flatter. Round the eye on the horn of the 
anvil with a >^-inch top-fuller, as shown in Fig. C. Finish 
hammering the jaw to size, and make a groove thru the center 
with a ^-inch top-fuller. This groove enables one to hold 
round stock with these tongs. It also insures a better grip on 



Exercise 23. 



Plate XXII. 



FLAT JAWED TONGS. 



5Tock-:gx i"x 6 "machine sfeel for jaws. 

t% 25i" round machine steel or W.I. for handles. 



© 



Mesrk wiffi di/^ef 



C^&nfef /ognc/y,..^^ j^" 



\-i- 



Fip.A 



rip. C. 



Flg.O. 



=iL(i) 





ifulhr 




V^tf^ 


i 1 


r r 


t 






90 HAMMER WORK 

flat material, since both sides of the jaws grip firmly. With- 
out the groove the jaws might touch the stock at the center 
only. A series of cross cuts, as shown, should be made with 
a hot chisel, to produce a still firmer hold. 

Step Nine. — Punch the rivet hole shown at 9 so that a 
^-inch rivet will easily drop into the hole. Bring the straight 
end of the rivet to a high heat and insert it in the holes in the 
two eyes. Turn the tongs over and place the rivet head on a 
bottom snap as shown in Fig. D. Head the heated end of 
the rivet by first giving it a few blows with the face of a hand- 
hammer, then rounding it with the peen of the hammer, and 
finally smoothing it with the top snap, or riveting tool. 

After riveting, the tongs will be stifif and will not open. 
This should be remedied by heating them at the rivet and 
opening and shutting them several times. Finish the tongs 
by fitting them to the stock on which they are to be used. 



Exercise 24. Link Tongs. (Plates XXIV -XXV.) 

Steps OxVE to Seven are the same as for the flat-jawed 
tongs. 

Step Eight. — Weld on the handles in the same manner as 
before. Draw-out the jaws, and finish them with a flatter to 
the form shown at 8. Cut off their ends with a bardie, as 
shown. 

Step Nine. — Punch the holes for a ^-inch rivet, and bend 
the ends of the jaws over the rounded edge of the anvil to the 
form at 9. 

Step Ten. — Finish bending the jaws over the horn of the 
anvil. This bending may also be done with a bottom-swage 
and a top-fuller. 

Step Eleven. — Rivet the parts together, and finish the 
tongs in the same manner as the flat-jawed tongs. 



Exercise 23. 



Plate XXIII. 



FUT JAWED TON05"CoNT. 



Stock- 2x252 roij nd mochine oteel. 



® 



2i' 



3 



2f — H 



25 £ 



©^ 



''^ark \v:th c/^ise/ -~y 



T7T7 



/Z(//(?/' A? /^ij/T' i 'round s/ock 



^^^nszs 




® 




® 



d 



^^'^ 



"t37- 




Exercise 24. 



Plate XXIV. 



LINK "TONeS. 



Stock- lxsx7"machine sreel for Jaws. 

i\ Z5k' round mach. sfeel or W. I. for handles. 



© 



/ffar-Zr >v///7 c/i/se/ — - 


^ 


C^s^/^sr- /yuncAy 


s 

\ 




-« Jg 




- 7 






-i- 










H- 



-^-rf- 



VL 



T A 



® 



JJ 



7 



\y~ 



jr 



rz fu//er- 



7 ""I* 

I t ^' 



-r 



Fig.C 
/ymsh rii'efing in rivef- 
snaps 



w ) 




/r 



-CXI 

i J 7 



Exercise 24. 



Plate XXV. 



LINK TONGS-CoNT. gj„^k^^V25rn)undmach.3leelorW.I 




94 HAMMER WORK 

Exercise 25. Hollow-Bit Tongs. (Plate XXVI.) 

One of the methods used for making hollow-bit tongs is 
shown in Plate XXVI. A student who has made the majority 
of the preceding exercises should be able to make a pair of 
these tongs without a detailed explanation of the various 
steps. However, the following points should be noted : 

At 3 the stock for the jaw is shown fullered and ready for 
shaping to size. It should be flattened and brought to the de- 
sired form with a square-edge set-hammer. The object of the 
fuller marks is to leave the neck thick, thereby making a 
stronger jaw. 

Enough stock is provided in this exercise for drawing-out 
the handles. This is done under the trip-hammer. The han- 
dles are then rounded between top- and bottom-swages. 

The flat end, or jaw proper, is bent to the form at 5 by 
placing it on a ^'-block and using a top-fuller on the inside, 
as shown in Fig. A. 

To bend the stock between the jaw proper and the eye to 
the form shown at 7, place it over the rounded edge of the 
anvil and use a i-inch top-fuller on it, as shown in Fig. B. 

After riveting the tongs, they should be fitted to a piece of 
square stock of the size on which they are to be used. 



Exercise 25, 



Plate XXVI. 



HOLLOW BIT TONGS 



Stock:|xl02 Round Machine Steel 
loV" 




CHAPTER VI. 
Annealing, Hardening and Tempering Steel. 

Annealing. — When carbon steel is heated to a temperature 
of about 1400° F. and allowed to cool slowly, it becomes soft, 
or annealed. The more slowly it is cooled the softer it is 
when cold. 

There are two objects in annealing: first, to soften the 
metal, and second, to remove internal stresses. For instance, 
a piece of tool steel is generally softened or annealed before 
being worked in a lathe or otherwise machined. 

The common method of annealing tool steel is to heat it 
to a cherry-red and bury it in ashes or slaked lime until it has 
entirely cooled. Care must be taken not to heat the steel too 
much, or its grain will become coarse and the steel weakened. 
The ashes and lime used should be perfectly dry, so that they 
will be poor conductors of heat and cause the steel to cool 
slowly. 

Box Annealing. — In annealing a large number of steel 
pieces, they are usually packed with ground bone or fine char- 
coal in cast-iron boxes and placed in an annealing furnace. 
When they have reached the proper temperature the draft is 
shut ofif, and the furnace is allowed to cool slowly. The steel 
is not removed from the boxes until it is cold. 

This method of annealing prevents the steel from being 
covered with scale, because no air is admitted and the oxygen 
of the air in the boxes is consumed by the red-hot carbon. 

Water Annealing. — The quickest method of annealing 
steel is known as "water annealing." It will not leave the 
steel as soft as when cooled slowly in lime or ashes, but it 
often serves the purpose more conveniently. A case in which 
this would be so is when a drill or tap has broken ofif in a 
piece of work and must be softened before it can be removed. 



HARDENING 97 

The procedure is to heat the steel to a dull red and plunge 
it in water. Soapy water gives very good results for this 
purpose. 

Hardening. — If instead of allowing steel to cool slowly 
from a cherry-red heat it is cooled suddenly, it will become 
very hard. The hardness will depend upon the percentage of 
carbon in the steel, the temperature at which it is hardened, 
and the speed with which it is cooled. The following two 
laws of hardening should be borne in mind while hardening 
tool steel : 

1. The higher the percentage of carbon in the steel the 
lower will be the refining, or hardening, heat. 

2. The more quickly steel is cooled from the hardening 
heat the harder it becomes. 

From these laws it follows that the hardness of any piece 
of steel may be varied by varying the rate of cooling. 

Refining Heat. — The only way to determine the proper 
heat at which a piece of tool steel should be hardened is by 
experimenting in the following manner : Draw-out a sample 
of the steel into a bar about ^ inch square. One end of this 
bar is heated to a dull-red and quickly cooled in water having 
a temperature of about 70° F. When cold it is placed on the 
anvil with about i inch of this end projecting over the rounded 
edge. An attempt is then made to break off this projecting 
end by hitting it with a hand-hammer. If it bends, the tem- 
perature at which it was hardened was not high enough. This 
test should then be repeated, raising the temperature slightly 
each time until the steel, when cooled, will be file-hard, i e., a 
file will not cut it ; will not break easily ; and will have a fine 
grain. If the temperature is raised too high the grain of the 
steel will be coarse, showing large crystals. The steel will also 
be very brittle, not so strong, and will not hold a cutting edge 
well. 



98 ANNEALING, HARDENING, TEMPERING 

The refining heat may then be defined as the temperature 
which gives the steel, when hardened, the finest grain, leaves 
it file-hard, and also leaves it in the strongest condition. 

Recalescence. — When steel is heated to a bright-red heat 
and allowed to cool, the rate of cooHng is not uniform. It will 
cool gradually until a certain temperature is reached, when it 
will seem to become hotter for a short time and the color 
lighter. Below this temperature the cooling is gradual again. 

The temperature at which this apparent re-heating occurs 
is the proper refining or hardening heat for the steel tested. It 
can be determined by the use of a Pyrometer. This phenom- 
enon is known as "recalescence." In water annealing, the hard 
steel should be heated to somewhat below this temperature. 

Tempering. — After tools have been hardened in the man- 
ner described above, they are too hard and brittle for most 
purposes, and must be softened a little. This process of 
slightly softening the hardened steel is known as "drawing 
the temper," or properly "tempering." 

Tempering is accomplished by reheating the hardened 
steel, and quickly cooling it again, the amount of the reheat- 
ing depending upon the use for which the tool is intended. 
The accompanying chart gives the approximate temperatures 
at which various tools are tempered. Thus if a piece of hard- 
ened tool steel is heated to a temperature of about 430° F. it 
will be only slightly softened, and will still be hard enough for 
small lathe tools. 

These temperatures can be determined in several ways. If 
the hardening and tempering is done on a large scale, an oil 
bath may be used. Such a bath is maintained at the desired 
temperature as indicated by a thermometer, and the steel 
placed in it after being hardened. When the steel has reached 
the same temperature as the bath, it is removed and quickly 
cooled. 

For ordinary purposes the temperature is gauged by the 



HARDENING AND TEMPERING 



99 



GUIDE FOR HARDENING AND TEMPERING 
CARBON TOOL STEEL 



Applications 


Temper- 
ature 


Color of 
Oxide 


Action of File 


Engraving tools, lathe tools, 
and tools for cutting hard 
metals at slow speed. 


430° 


Very pale 
yellow 


File will hardly 
mark 


Lathe and planer tools for 
heavy work, milling cut- 
ters, taps, reamers, thread- 
cutting tools, punches, dies, 
etc. 


460° 


Straw yellow 


File will mark 


Various punches and dies, 
wood-working tools, twist 
drills, sledges, blacksmith's 
hand-hammers, stone drills, 
etc. 


500° 


Deep straw 

(or 

brown-yellow) 


File will mark 
a little deeper 


Shear knives, rivet snaps, 
punches, boilermakers' 
tools, and cold chisels for 
light work. 


525° 


Light purple 




Cold chisels for ordinary 
work, gears, surgical in- 
struments, etc. 


570° 


Blue tinged 
with red 


Files, but with 
difficulty 


Springs, picks, etc. 


580° 


Blue 






625° to 650° 


Gray or green 





100 ANNEALING, HARDENING, TEMPERING 

color of oxide on the steel. This film of oxide forms on the 
polished surface of steel if heat is applied. It is first visible 
at a temperature of about 430°, when the color is a very pale 
yellow. As the temperature rises, the color changes from 
pale yellow to dark yellow, to brown, then to light purple, to 
dark purple, and finally to blue. These colors serve as a guide 
for tempering. After the metal has been cooled they remain 
visible, indicating the last temperature to which it was heated. 
Common iron shows this same phenomenon. 

Up to a visible red heat, the higher the temperature of re- 
heating the softer the steel becomes. If the steel is reheated 
to too high a temperature it must be rehardened and tempered 
again. 

The best shop method for testing the hardness of a tool is 
to try it with a file. The action of a file on steel which has 
been tempered at the dififerent colors is given in the chart ; 
but while this method may indicate that a tool has the proper 
hardness, the grain may be coarse because of too high a hard- 
ening heat. This last condition gives the tool a crumbly and 
scratchy cutting edge. 

Tempering Only the Cutting Edges of Tools. — Certain 
tools are tempered only at the cutting edges, the main body 
being left unhardened in order to resist shocks. They are all 
tempered in the same manner, the only difiference being in the 
final hardness of the cutting edge. The tempering of a chisel 
will serve as an example of the process employed. 

After the chisel has been forged, it should be allowed to 
cool until black, and then reheated for hardening about 3 
inches back from the edge. When reheating, the cutting edge 
should be kept high in the fire, so that the heat will be applied 
to the thick part of the chisel and flow toward the cutting 
edge. The chisel should be kept well covered with coke, and 
heated slowly. 

The hardening is done by quick cooling in water at a tem- 



TEMPERING 



101 



perature of about 70° F. This water should be clean, since dirty 
water retards cooling. The chisel is held vertically, and the 
cutting edge gradually inserted in the water until about half 
of the heated portion is below the surface. The tool must be 
moved around while doing this, so that the steam generated 
will not blow the water away and retard the cooling. It 
should never be held stationary in the water, since if there is 
a well-defined line between the cooled and hot portions the 
chisel will probably break at that point. The chisel is then 
quickly plunged into the water and immediately removed, con- 
siderable heat remaining in it but the edge being cold. 



Pale Yellow 
Straw Yellow 
Deep Srraw 
Light Purple 
Blue tinged with Red 




Fig. 47- 

For the purpose of watching the colors, the cutting end is 
polished with a carborundum stone or a piece of emery cloth. 
These temper colors will first appear next to the heated por- 
tion of the chisel when the heat from that part runs down into 
the point. They will move down toward the point in the order 
shown at A in Fig. 47. When the color at the cutting edge is 
blue tinged with red, as at B, the tool is completely cooled to 
prevent further reheating and softening of the point. 

A lathe tool is hardened and tempered in the same man- 
ner, except that the final cooling is done when the yellow 
scale appears at the cutting edge. 



102 ANNEALING, HARDENING, TEMPERING 

Hardening and Tempering Tools Thruout. — When a tool 
is to be tempered thruout it is first heated uniformly to the re- 
fining heat, and then completely cooled. After removing it 
from the cooling bath it is dried, and the surface polished. It 
is tempered by laying it on a piece of red-hot iron until the 
desired color appears on the polished surface, when it is again 
cooled in water or oil. The tool should be turned frequently, 
in order to have the heating take place uniformly. If this is 
not done the parts in contact with the hot iron will become 
overheated and too soft before the other parts are hot enough 
to show the desired colors. The reheating is sometimes done 
over the fire, or on a plate laid over the fire. 

Methods of Cooling. — The degree of hardness in a piece 
of carbon steel depends upon the rapidity of its cooling from 
the refining heat. Some tools, such as dies, files, etc., which 
must be extremely hard, are hardened by plunging them, when 
at the refining heat, into a bath of cold brine. The latter cools 
the steel faster than water, and leaves it much harder. Tools 
and articles such as springs, which require toughness rather 
than hardness, are cooled in oil. The oil does not cool them 
as rapidly as water. 

Care should be taken not to remove the tools from the 
bath, when being hardened thruout, until they have completely 
cooled, as they are likely to crack. 

Forging Heat of Tool Steel. — The temperature at which 
tool steel should be worked depends on the amount of forging 
and hammering to be done. If a large amount of hammering 
is necessary for shaping a piece, it should be worked at a yel- 
low heat. At this heat the steel is plastic and works easily. 
Much heavy hammering is good for the steel, since it refines 
the grain. When the forging or tool is merely to be smoothed 
or finished, the work should be done at a temperature just 
above the refining heat. 

Heating Steel for Hardening. — The fire used for heating 



HEATING 103 

tool Steel should have a good bed, or bottom, of hot coke, in 
order to heat the cold air coming thru the tuyere iron. If the 
air is not warmed very much and a piece in the fire is turned 
over occasionally, the heated portions of the piece will be 
cooled. This cooling will make it contract and tend to crack 
it. The piece should also be kept well covered with hot coke, 
in order that the oxygen in the air will not attack and decar- 
bonize it. 

Carbon steel should be heated slowly enough to obtain a 
uniform color on it. If it is heated too rapidly the corners 
and edges will become overheated before the main body of 
the piece has reached the proper temperature. Allowing these 
parts to cool to the proper temperature will not do much good, 
as the grain in them will be coarse and there will be internal 
stresses set up. 

Importance of Uniform Heating. — If one part of a tool 
to be hardened is heated more than another there will be an 
unequal expansion. The contraction which takes place when 
the tool is cooled will also be unequal. This causes internal 
stresses in the tool, which may crack it at any time. For this 
reason pieces of tool steel sometimes break with a loud report 
after being hardened. 

Hardening at a Rising Heat. — A piece of carbon steel 
should never be allowed to "soak" in the fire after having been 
uniformly heated to the desired temperature. This causes it 
to become decarbonized, coarse in grain, and brittle. It should 
be removed from the fire and hardened just as soon as the de- 
sired temperature has been reached. 

Restoring the Grain. — In case the grain of a piece of steel 
has become coarse thru overheating, it may and should be re- 
fined in one of the following ways: 

1. By reducing the size of the material with a trip-ham- 
mer or sledge, thereby closing the grain. 

2. By allowing the steel to cool and then reheating it to 
the refining heat. 



104 ANNEALING, HARDENING, TEMPERING 

Restoring the grain by reheating may not make the steel 
quite as good as it was before being overheated. Unless it 
has been overheated for some time or actually burned, ham- 
mering will practically restore it to its original quality. 

Caution. — If the refining heat of a piece of steel is 1400° 
F, and thru carelessness the piece is heated to 1600°, it should 
not be cooled in the air to 1400° and then hardened. This 
would give it the hardness of the 1400° temperature together 
with the coarse grain due to overheating. The grain of tool 
steel remains in the condition caused by the highest tempera- 
ture to which it has been heated until it is cooled and reheated. 
It then adjusts itself to the new temperature. 

Warping in Cooling. — When heated steel is cooled it con- 
tracts, and unless the contraction is uniform it is liable to be 
warped or bent out of shape. To avoid this warping as much 
as possible the piece must first be heated uniformly, and then 
cooled uniformly by dipping it in the cooling bath in the 
proper manner. 

If, for instance, a carving knife were uniformly heated 
and dipped into oil or water so that one of the flat sides struck 
the bath first, that side would be cooled more quickly than 
the other and the blade would be badly warped. By dipping- 
it in edge-wise both sides would be cooled at the same rate, 
and the warping would be very slight. 

Cylindrical pieces are generally inserted end first in the 
cooling bath ; while square flat pieces, carving knives, shear 
blades, and articles of similar character, are dipped edge-wise. 

Hardening Thin Flat Articles. — Very thin flat pieces of 
steel are sometimes hardened by heating them uniformly to 
the refining heat and placing them between heavy plates of 
iron whose faces are smeared with oil. The insertion of the 
steel between the plates must be done as quickly as possible. 
This method leaves the steel hard, true, and flat. 

Tempering Taps. — When hardening tools having teeth or 



TEMPERING TAPS 105 

projections, such as taps and reamers, they should not be 
heated more than is absolutely necessary. The heating should 
be done in a muffle furnace, but in case this is not available it 
can be done over the forge fire by enclosing the tap in a piece 
of pipe, to prevent the teeth from coming in direct contact 
with the fire. In the latter method the pipe in which the heat- 
ing is done should be longer and at least 2 inches larger in 
diameter than the tool. The tap must be heated slowly and 
revolved frequently, in order to obtain a uniform heat. 

After the refining heat has been reached the tap is cooled 
in tepid water. It is plunged end first and then moved up, 
down, and around in the water, to cool it thoroly and to 
prevent the steam generated from retarding the cooling. 




When the tap has been completely cooled it is taken out and 
polished with a special emery wheel, or with emery cloth, in 
order that the temper colors may be readily seen. 

It is tempered by inserting in a heated collar, as shown in 
Fig. 48. It should be constantly revolved while inside the col- 
lar, and moved back and forth thru it, depending on how the 
colors are appearing. In no case should the teeth come in 
contact with the inside of the collar. When the desired color, 
deep straw or brown, has appeared, the tap is cooled in oil. 

Tempering Carving Knives. — When hardening carving 
knives on a small scale they are generally heated in the same 
manner as a tap, i. e., inside of a piece of pipe. The pipe 
should, however, be first heated uniformly by revolving it 
slowly in the fire. The knife is then held inside of it, and very 



106 ANNEALING, HARDENING, TEMPERING 

little blast turned on. The heating should be done slowly, in 
order to avoid warping or bending. When heated uniformly 
to the refining heat, the blade is cooled in fish oil, dipping it 
edge-wise with the back of the knife down. If the blade be- 
comes bent before hardening, no attempt should be made to 
straighten it below a red-heat, otherwise it will warp again 
when being cooled. 

After the knife has been hardened it is polished on an 
emery buffer and held in the flame of the fire to temper it. 
The final cooling is done in oil, when the color of the scale is 
blue tinged with red. 

Tempering Shear Blades. — In small shops shear blades 
are hardened in the following manner : Two wrought iron 
plates the same length as the blade, i inch narrower, and ^ 
inch thick are placed on either side of the blade, so that about 
I inch of the cutting edge is exposed for its entire length. 
Holes corresponding to those in the blade are drilled in the 
plates, and the three pieces are bolted together. They are 
then placed in a furnace, heated to the refining heat, and cooled 
in tepid water. 

When the blade is cold the plates are removed, and one 
side of the blade polished, in order to watch the temper colors. 
The blade is tempered by standing it on edge lengthwise on a 
piece of hot iron. As soon as the desired color, a straw yel- 
low, reaches the cutting edge, the blade is cooled in fish oil. 

These plates prevent the body of the blade from becoming 
as hot as the cutting edge, and cause it to cool slowly. This 
makes the body tough for resisting shocks. The plates also 
keep the blade from warping when cooling. 

Tempering Springs. — When pieces of steel must be tough- 
ened so that they will return to their original form when bent 
or twisted, they are generally "spring tempered." This is the 
same as ordinary tempering, except that more of the hardness 
is removed, making the steel tougher. 



TEMPERING SPRINGS 107 

Fish or animal oil is generally used for cooling in spring 
tempering. It gives better control over the hardness, because 
the steel is not cooled quite so fast as in water. The latter 
can be used, but it makes it harder to properly gauge the 
tempering. 

For many purposes a grade of steel made especially for 
springs gives better results than regular tool steel. It is there- 
fore a good policy to state the requirements of a spring when 
ordering material for it. 

Tempering springs on a small scale is generally done by 
the blazing off or flashing process. The spring is first hard- 
ened in the fish oil and then re-heated, while still wet with oil, 
in the flame of the fire. When the oil on it blazes up, it is 
plunged for an instant into the oil bath. This procedure is 
continued until the oil blazes uniformly over the entire spring 
at the same time, which is generally after about three plunges 
in the bath. It is then again completely cooled in the oil. 
Springs are seldom uniform in thickness, hence the thin parts 
heat more quickly than the others. The momentary plunge 
into the oil bath cools these thin parts somewhat without af- 
fecting the rest of the spring very much. In this way the 
entire spring is brought to the flash-point temperature of the 
oil, which is about 600° F. 

When large numbers of springs are to be handled, an oil 
bath kept at the proper temperature is often provided for tem- 
pering. The springs are placed in this bath after being hard- 
ened, and are allowed to remain there for a certain length of 
time, depending upon their size. They are then removed and 
cooled in oil. 

Case Hardening. — On account of the small amount of car- 
bon in wrought iron and soft steel, they cannot be hardened 
to any appreciable extent. If, however, they are heated to a 
high temperature while in contact with some substance con- 
taining carbon, such as ground bone, charcoal, or charred 



108 ANNEALING, HARDENING, TEMPERING 

leather, their outside surfaces will absorb some of the carbon. 
This gives these surfaces the characteristic properties of tool 
steel, so that they can be hardened and tempered in the same 
manner. The process of treating the iron or steel so as to 
make the outside surface hard is known as case-hardening. 

A piece of material which has been case-hardened con- 
sists of a wrought iron or machine steel core with a tool 
steel surface. Machine steel is used ordinarily for case- 
hardening. Steel treated in this way is particularly valuable 
for bicycle parts, since it will not bend easily, resists shocks 
by reason of its soft core, and is much cheaper than tool steel. 
The depth to which the material is carbonized, or the pene- 
tration of the carbon, depends upon the temperature to which 
the material is heated while in contact with the carbonizer, the 
length of time it is maintained at that temperature, and the 
carbonizing substance used. 

There are three practical shop methods which are used for 
case-hardening. 

First Method. — Small pieces and pieces which require 
only a very thin shell of hard steel are first heated to a high 
red heat, then removed from the fire and sprinkled with cyan- 
ide of potassium. The latter must be reasonably pure in order 
to obtain the best results. The pieces are reheated for a few 
seconds, to allow the carbon from the cyanide time to soak in, 
and are then quickly cooled in water. This method is also used 
when only the surface of a hole or a small part of a piece is 
to be hardened. 

By taking a handful of sharp sand and scouring the piece 
under water while it is still hot, all of the dirt and scale may 
be removed. 

Second Method. — It is often desired to give the surface 
of a tool a mottled effect when case-hardening it. This can 
be done in the following manner : 

The tool is first polished and then placed in a cast iron pot 



CASE-HARDENING 



109 



containing molten cyanide of potassium. This pot is kept on 
the fire until after the tool is removed. The tool is allowed 
to remain in the cyanide until the desired absorption of car- 
bon has been reached. Ten minutes is required for a pene- 
tration of about .001 inch. It is then removed with a pair of 
tongs and dropped thru a distance of 5 or 6 feet into cold 
water. 

The same effect can be obtained by passing the piece thru 
a spray of water after its removal from the cyanide pot, and 
then cooling it. Wherever a fine spray strikes the piece a 
vine-like effect is produced. 

Caution. — Do not dip wet tongs into molten cyanide, as this 
will cause the cyanide to spatter around. Cyanide crystals are 
deadly poison. Care should also be taken to avoid the fumes 
from the cyanide as much as possible, for they are very pois- 
onous. 

Third Method. Pack Hardening. — In most commercial 
practice case-hardening is done in the following manner : 

The carbonizer, which may be ground bone, charcoal, or 
charred leather, is dried well and reduced to a fine powder. 
A layer of it about i^ inches thick is placed on the bottom 
of a hardening pot, and on top of it a layer of the articles to 
be hardened. These must not touch each other. Another 
layer of carbonizer is added, and on top of it another layer of 
the pieces. This building-up process is continued until the 
pot is full, when a final covering of carbonizer is added. A lid 
is put on, and all joints are closed with clay to prevent oxida- 
tion. The pot is then placed in a furnace and heated to a tem- 
perature of about 1800° F, a full orange heat. 

When the carbonizing action has continued long enough, 
about six hours being required for a penetration of about Yiq 
inch, the pot is removed from the furnace and allowed to cool 
slowly. It is then opened, and the articles cleaned with a 
brush. They are reheated to a temperature of about 1450°, 



110 ANNEALING, HARDENING, TEMPERING 

and quickly cooled in cold water or oil. This reheating re- 
fines the grain, making the final product tough and strong. 

Hardening pots are made out of either cast iron or wrought 
iron. The latter stand the heat better and last longer, but are 
more expensive. 

This process is sometimes employed to enrich the surface 
of low-grade tool steel. The tool steel is packed with a car- 
bonizing material in iron boxes, and heated in a furnace. The 
contents of the box are kept at a temperature of about 1475° F 
for about two hours, depending upon the depth of carbonizing 
required. After removing the box from the furnace the pieces 
are withdrawn, and cooled in oil. 

Treatment of High-Speed Steel.* 

High-speed steel generally requires different treatment from 
high-carbon steel, on account of the peculiarities of some of 
its constituents. The same general method is usually followed, 
but slight modifications are sometimes required to obtain the 
best results. For this reason it is advisable to follow the 
special directions given by the manufacturer. 

Cutting Stock. — High-speed steel should be heated for 
cutting, since breaking it cold has a tendency to produce 
cracks. Small stock is often cut by grinding a groove around 
it with an emery wheel and then breaking it. 

Forging Heat. — The proper temperature for forging this 
steel is about 1800'^ F, a yellow heat. It should be heated 
slowly until it becomes red hot, and may then be heated faster 
up to a yellow heat. H heated too quickly the outside of the 
steel may become hot while the center is still comparatively 
cold. Hammering it in this condition is liable to cause inter- 
nal cracks. 



* For further information on the treatment of high-speed steel the 
student is referred to "On the Art of Cutting Metals," by Mr. F. W. 
Taylor. 



TREATMENT OF HIGH-SPEED STEEL 111 

The Fire used for heating high-speed steel should not be 
a freshly-made one. It should have burned for some time, in 
order to produce the intense heat necessary for proper hard- 
ening. There should be a good bed of hot coke around the 
steel, to bring it to the hardening heat quickly. 

Heating for Hardening. — In heating the end of a high- 
speed steel tool for hardening it should be brought slowly to a 
full red heat, and then quickly heated to the melting point. 
While doing this the tool should be turned frequently, to in- 
sure a uniform high heat thruout the entire end. At this tem- 
perature the nose of the tool sweats or becomes wet. The 
higher the temperature to which the tool is heated for harden- 
ing the greater will be its property of red hardness, or the 
higher the temperature at which it will still hold its cutting 
edge. 

Care should be taken when removing the tool from the fire 
to see that the point does not hit the coke. At this high tem- 
perature the steel is soft and crumbly, and will break easily. 
If the tool becomes pitted, or if some of the corners fall off 
due to the excessive heat, it will still be in good condition after 
grinding off the irregularities. 

Cooling. — The tool is cooled from this high heat by any 
one of several methods. Its nose may be quickly cooled by the 
air-blast from an air compressor or power fan. Another way 
is to simply immerse it in oil. Cooling it in water tends to 
crack it ; but tools are sometimes partially cooled in water and 
then finally cooled in oil. The latter method makes the tool 
somewhat harder than either air or oil cooling. 

Lead Heat Treatment. — Still another method is to plunge 
the highly heated tool into a vat of molten lead at a tempera- 
ture of about 1500° F. It is allowed to remain there for a 
time, depending on the size of the tool (ten minutes for an 
ordinary lathe tool), and is then transferred to another vat 



112 ANNEALING, HARDENING, TEMPERING 

at a lower temperature. This method is not suitable for small 
shops, as it is more expensive than the air-blast or oil method. 
Annealing. — High-speed steel sometimes becomes refrac- 
tory when dressing it, so that it crumbles. In such cases it 
should be annealed. This may be done in the same manner 
that carbon tool steel is treated. 



CHAPTER VII. 
Tool Forging. 

Selection of Steel for Tools. — There are so many grades 
of tool steel on the market that it is very hard to select the 
best material for a tool without knowing somewhat of the 
characteristics of each grade. This information is generally 
given in the catalogues of the manufacturers, which should 
be consulted before ordering the material. One of the best 
ways is to order the steel for a stated purpose, without spec- 
ifying any particular brand, thus putting the responsibility of 
selecting the right kind on the manufacturer or his agent. 

Steel is sometimes designated by the number of .oi%'s of 
carbon that it contains. If there is i% of carbon in it, it is 
known as lOO point carbon steel. Fifty carbon, or fifty-point 
carbon, indicates a steel containing .5% of carbon. 

In order to provide a rough guide for the student and to 
illustrate the fact that different tools require different grades 
of steel, the following table is given : 

% Carbon Useo for 

.70 to .80 Blacksmiths' tools, such as rivet-sets, sledges, hand- 
hammers, fullers, flatters, etc. ; wedges, pick-points, 
and other tools that are welded. 
.80 to .90 Shear blades, caulking tools, punches for boilermakers, 
axes, rock drills, hand chisels, and drop-forging dies, 
.goto 1. 00 Mining and rock drills, chisels, dies, shear blades, 
knives, and axes. 
1. 00 to 1. 10 Lathe centers; small hand tools; knives, axes, and 

flat drills. 
1 . 10 to 1.20 Lathe and planer tools, twist drills, reamers, milling 

cutters, granite cutters' tools, lathe centers. 
1.20 to 1.30 Wood- and metal-turning tools, graving tools, etc. 
1.30 to 1.40 Tools for turning chilled and hard metals; finishing 
tools, and cutters. 



114 TOOL FORGING 

Before attempting to forge and harden his first tool a stu- 
dent should experiment with a sample of the tool steel, in order 
to determine its refining heat and to learn how to restore the 
grain if it is overheated. He should also practice drawing the 
colors on pieces of scrap machine steel. 

Tool-steel stock should be cut while hot. If it is cut cold 
cracks are likely to be formed, which will appear when the 
tool is hardened. 



Exercise 26. Cold Chisel. (Plate XXVII.) 

Step One. — Heat the head end to a yellow heat, and taper 
it as shown at i. 

Step Two. — Forge the other end to the form shown at 2 
at a yellow heat. About ^4 inch of this end should extend 
over the sharp edge of the anvil, and the tapering should be 
continued up to that edge. The finishing may be done with 
a flatter at a temperature just above the refining heat. If it is 
hammered out with heavy blows when black, the grain will be 
crushed. 

Step Three. — The extreme end. A, may be cut ofl: with 
the hardie, or it may be cut partly thru and broken after the 
chisel has been hardened and tempered. The latter method 
exposes the grain and indicates whether the heat was correct. 
If the edge of the tool is too thin when cut it should not be up- 
set, as this makes it likely to crack. It must be cut off shorter. 
The chisel should be allowed to cool slowly, in order to re- 
move any internal stresses that may have been caused by im- 
proper hammering. 

The cutting edge is tempered to a blue-tinged-with-red 
color, in the manner already described in the previous chap- 
ter. The tip is then ground on an emery wheel to an angle of 
60°, as shown. 



Exercises 26 and 27. 



Plate XXVII. 



COLD CHI5EL. 



5rock-oA 6z Ocragonal tool steel. 

HO 



or 



D5 © 



— rf- — I 




£] 



O 



CAPE CHISEL. 



3tock-^x 6? Octagonal tool steel. 



D ® 



EO 



ei' 



ID © 



D: 



° \ ',^- Center- panctt 



D © 




D ® 



D 



© 



£) © 



116 , TOOL FORGING 

Test the chisel by chipping a piece of cast iron. If the cut- 
ting edge is too soft it should be rehardened at a higher tem- 
perature ; while if it breaks, showing a coarse grain, it should 
be rehardened at a lower temperature. 

Exercise 27. Cape Chisel. (Plate XXVII.) 

The cape chisel, Fig. 49, is used for cutting grooves and 
for working at the bottom of narrow channels. The cutting 
edge, l4, should be wider than the rest of the blade. The 
taper should extend to B. This permits the blade to "clear" 



Cj 




B 
Fig. 49. C.\PE Chisel. 

the sides of a groove, or slot, when the groove is being cut to 
the width of the edge A. 

Step One. — Cut the stock to length, and taper the head 
end. 

Step Two.— The other end is brought to a yellow heat, 
and tapered square, as shown at 2. 

Step Three. — Make the fuller marks shown with J^- or 
^-inch top- and bottom-fullers. These marks should not be 
made too deep, or the blade will not be thick enough. Their 
object is to prevent the blade from being made too long. 

Step Four.- — Place the end over the large part of the horn 
and flatten it with a hand-hammer in the manner shown at 
A in Fig. 50. Since the horn acts as a fuller, this stretches 
the stock lengthwise and enables one to make the end of the 
blade, A, in Fig. 49, wider than the section at B without mak- 
ing the nicks or sharp corners which would be formed if the 
edge of the anvil were used. 

Extend the end M shown at B in Fig. 50 over the sharp 



CAPE CHISELS 



117 



edge of the anvil, and finish the blade by turning it on edge 
and hammering it to a point. Smoothing may be done with 
a set-hammer and a flatter, as shown at C and D in Fig. 50. 




Fig. 50. 

Harden and temper the cutting edge in the same manner as 
the flat chisel. 

Exercise 28. Round-Nose Cape Chisel. (Plate XXVIII.) 
The round-nose cape chisel is used for cutting oil grooves 

and for centering drills. In the latter capacity it is known as 

a centering chisel. 

This chisel is made in the same manner as the cape chisel 

except that one edge of the blade is rounded, as shown at 5. 

This is done by placing the blade on a bottom-swage and using 

a hand-hammer or a flatter on the top edge. 



118 TOOL FORGING 



Exercise 29. Center-Punch. (Plate XXVIII.) 

The center-punch is so simple to make that no detailed de- 
scription of the steps required is necessary. It is hardened in 
the same manner as the cold chisel, but is tempered to a brown 
or purple color. When tempered, the center-punch should 
mark tool steel without having its point dulled. 

Lathe Tools. — In most machine-shop work high-speed 
steel tools are employed in preference to carbon tools, because 
they can be used for faster cutting and are more economical. 
For light lathe work, high-speed steel may be obtained in small 
pieces already hardened. Where a fine finish is desired and 
the cuts are light, carbon steel tools are used. They will take 
a keener edge than high-speed steel, but the cutting must be 
done more slowly. The following five exercises give the 
method of forming and tempering some of the common forms 
of high-carbon lathe tools. 



Exercises 28 and 29. 



Plate XXVIII. 



ROUND NOSE CAPE CHISEL. 



5Tock-^x 64 Ocfogonal tool steel. 

I FO 



oV 






^'ru//a 




D ® 



D ® 

® 



o 



^ 



o 



CENTER PUNCH. 



5iDck-ix42 Octagonal tool steel. 



KO 



4f 






B 



>i 



zV — --| 



5#' 



D 

D 



® 
® 
® 
® 



120 TOOL FORGING 

Exercise 30. Round-Nose Tool. (Plate XXIX.) 

Step One.— Forge one end of the stock from three sides 
to a blunt point, as shown at i. 

Step Two.— Hammer out this end so that the top edge is 
thicker than the lower one and has clearance all around, as 
shown at 2. This is done because all the cutting done by this 



c 


/ C 




—I— 




/ 




/ 


- 


J- 




/ 


V 



Fig. 51- 

tool occurs at or near the tip. Trim off the end with a hot 
chisel, and bend it up slightly, as shown. 

The hardening is done in the same manner as with the cold 
chisel. The nose should be heated up to the line BB in Fig. 
51, and then cooled as far as CC. The final cooling is done 
when the temper color at the tip is light yellow. 

Exercise 31. Cutting-Off Tool. (Plate XXIX.) 

The cutting-off tool is used for making a narrow groove in 
work on a lathe. It is forged with the blade either on one side 
or in the center of the stock. The easier way is to have one 
side of the blade flush with the side of the tool, as in this 
exercise. 

Step One. — Cut the stock to length, and center-punch it, 
as shown at i. 



Exercises 30 and 31. 



Plate XXIX. 



ROUND NOSE TOOL. 



Stock ?x IxZ'fool 5Tee(. 



© 



&r 



lL 

7" H K"H 



-if — A \ iirV 



h^-A 



-I1 

T 



n SI 






CUTTING OFF TOOL 



Stock- e'x I'x 7" rool steel. 



^A 



U^ei'fuller. 



® 



sp 



k- -if 1 



-^\ 



a 



h- — r^" 



122 TOOL FORGINC. 

Step Two. — Mark with a fuller, and draw out the part A 
either with a hand-hammer on the rounded edge of the anvil 
or with the trip-hammer. The hammering should be done 
with the fullered side down, in the same manner as the first 
step in forging flat-jawed tongs. 

Step Three. — Taper the sides of the blade as shown at 3. 
Since the cutting edge of this tool is the extreme end, it must 
be made thicker than the rest of the blade, so that it will have 
clearance. 

Step Four. — Cut off the end of the blade with a hot chisel, 
making it appear as at 4. 

In tempering this tool it is heated to the line BB and 
cooled to the line CC, in the same manner as the round-nose 
tool. The temper color should be light yellow. 



Exercise 32. Threading Tool. (Plate XXX.) 

Step One. — Cut and mark the stock, as shown. 

Step Two. — Fuller the end, as at 2. 

Step Three. — Draw-out the blade with a set-hammer, a 
top-fuller, or under the trip-hammer. 

Step Four. — Cut off the end with a hot chisel. The cut- 
ting edge is generally ground by the person using the tool. 
Harden it in the same manner as the cold chisel, tempering it 
to a light straw color. 



Exercise 32. 



Plate XXX. 



THREADING TOOL. 



Stock -2x1x7 "tool 5teel. 



® 



Center punch i- 



^I^^^T 



hi'H 



Use 2 Top and bottain fullers Race 
center of fuller on center punch mark 



^ 



Cut off along dotted line and grind point 
to OO'cingle 



-\i' 



_p3f=> 



124 TOOL FORGING 



Exercise 33. Side Tool. (Plate XXXI.) 

Side tools, or side-finishing tools, are shaped as shown at 
4. They are made with the blade at either the right or the left 
side, and are called right- or left-hand side-tools. The blades 
may be bent. Bent side-tools are forged in the same manner 
as the others, the blade being bent toward the shank after- 
wards. 

Step One. — Cut the stock to length, and mark it as shown. 

Step Two. — Make a fuller mark as shown at 2, tipping the 
fuller so that the groove is cut deeper at one side. 

Step Three. — Draw-out the end of the stock, C, at the 
rounded edge of the anvil with a heavy hand-hammer, the 
fullered side being down. Smooth it with a set-hammer. 
Trim the blade with a hot chisel along the dotted lines shown 
at 3. 

Step Four. — Finish the tool by giving the top edge of the 
blade the proper offset. To do this it should be placed with 
the flat side down over the rounded edge of the anvil, as shown 
in Fig. A. The shoulder of the blade should extend about % 
inch beyond the outer edge. A set-hammer is placed on the 
blade close to the shoulder and given a few blows with a 
sledge, to produce the necessary offset. 

In hardening this tool it should be placed in the fire with 
the cutting edge up, in order to avoid overheating. The blade 
is hardened by dipping it in water, as shown in Fig. B. Only 
the small corner of the blade D should be allowed to remain 
red-hot. The tool is removed from the water, quickly pol- 
ished on the flat side of the blade, and tempered to a light 
yellow color. The entire cutting edge should be uniform in 
color. If this is not the case and it is blue at one end and 
straw at the other, the blue end has not been cooled enough. 
The tool should then be rehardened, this time tipping it so 
that the end of the blade which was too soft will be deeper in 
the water. 



Exercise 33. 



Plate XXXI. 



SIDE TOOL. 



5iDck- i"x I'x 8' tool steel. 



a' 



^ir- 




Use 2 fuller. 



yTV_C_ 



U 




I 7 



^/ 


^^ii---^ 


\ 


/ 

V. 



J_ 



-X 



126 TOOL FORGING 



Exercise 34. Boring Tool. (Plate XXXII.) 

Step One. — Cut the stock to length, and mark it as shown. 

Step Two. — Make a fuller mark as shown at 2. 

Step Three. — Draw-out for the thin shank either under 
the trip-hammer or at the rounded edge of the anvil with a 
sledge or heavy hand-hammer. The length of this shank varies 
according to the depth of the hole in which the tool is to be 
used. 

Step Four. — Bend the nose as shown. Only the tip of 
this nose need be hardened and tempered. The temper color 
is the same as for the other lathe tools, i. e., light yellow. 

It is sometimes necessary to use a boring-tool for turning 
a recess having sharp corners. In this case the nose is ham- 
mered flat before bending, as shown in Fig. A. It is then 
bent up, as in Fig. B, and the cutting edge ground square. 



Exercise 35. Cross-Peen Hammer, (Plate XXXIII.) 

In forging the cross-peen hammer of this exercise two stu- 
dents should work together. The stock used should be 8% 
inches long, giving enough material for two. When only one 
hammer is required the stock should be long enough to work 
it without the use of tongs. With handle it should weigh 
about 2^ lbs. 

Step One. — Mark the stock as shown at i with a chisel 
and a center-punch. 

Step Two. — Bring the steel slowly to a yellow heat, and 
punch it with an eye-punch similar to the one shown in Fig. 
52. The end of this punch is shaped somewhat Uke a dull cen- 
ter-punch, so that it can be easily driven thru the stock with- 
out cutting out too much material. The punch should be re- 
moved from the hole after each blow, in order to see if the 
hole is being punched straight. This also cools the punch, and 



Exercise 34. 



Plate XXXII. 



BORING TOOL 



StDck-SA I A 6s" tool 5teel. 



k 



vz 



® 




Fig. A 




r^9.B ^-:z=i=J D 



128 



TOOL FORGING 



prevents it from bending. When the hole has been punched 
nearly thru from the one side, the punch should be removed 
and cooled. Punching is then finished from the other side. 




Fig. 52. Eye-Punch. 



Fig. S3. Drift-Pin. 



Step Three. — Drive a tool-steel drift-pin, Fig. 53. into the 
hole. The bulging sides of the piece should then be hammered 
down to the size of the bar with a sledge, and smoothed with 
a flatter. Always remove the drift-pin before reheating the 
piece. 

Step Four. — Draw-out the face end to the form shown. 

Step Five.^ — Trim the face with a hot chisel. Drive the 
drift-pin in from each side, making the shape of the eye as 
shown. Cut ofT the stock at the middle, and draw-out the 
peen end in the same manner as a hand chisel is forged, either 
under the trip-hammer or with a heavy hand-hammer. Finish 
it with a flatter. 

Step Six. — Finish trimming both ends, making the ham- 
mer appear as at 6. 

• Step Seven. — When cold grind the face and peen slightly 
convex, as shown. 

For hardening, the entire hammer is slowly heated to the 
refining heat. In removing it from the fire, one jaw of a pair 
of tongs should ^)e inserted in the eye. The face is hardened 
first by slowly inserting about i^ inch of the end in water, as 



Exercise 35. 



Plate XXXIII 



CROSS PEEN HAMMER. 



© 
© 



© 



© 



© 



Stock- 1 i'x Iz^fii" tool 5tee/. 



<i<SV-7/te/'/3'<y./?lC^ - 



li-^ 



•-jw 



7 



-^ 



Af4^^A KK///? c/7/J5<S/ 



4^ 

~l6-~ 27 



9? 


m 



' 


• 




h— ^-— 4r^ 



130 TOOL FORGING 

was done with the cold chisel. When it has cooled enough, 
the peen is hardened in the same manner, care being taken not 
to cool the stock around the eye. While cooling the peen, 
water should be allowed to drip on the center of the face. 
This prevents the colors from running down before the peen 
has been cooled enough, and insures a uniformly hardened face. 
If the face were cooled by merely dipping it in water, the out- 
side edges would harden faster than the center and be more 
likely to crack. 

After cooling, the ends are polished with an emery brick, 
the heat around the eye being held for tempering. Dark 
brown is a good temper color for the face, and brown or pur- 
ple for the peen. If the desired color reaches the face first, 
the face should be placed in water until the proper color has 
reached the peen. The two ends are then dipped alternately 
in water. This allows the eye to cool slowly, making it tough. 



Exercise 36. Small Cross-Peen Hammer. (Plate XXXIV.) 

This hammer is forged and tempered in the same manner 
as the cross-peen hammer of Exercise 35. It should weigh 
when finished about i,'4 pounds. 



Exercise 36. 



Plate XXXIV. 



SMALL CROSS PCEN HAMMEIR 



r-i' 



Stock -- 1 xrx7ir tool steel. 

Center- punch -y fMark vvifh oh/se/ 



I3 -+- t^ 



7r 



® 



f-#'d_ 



k_._\| 



1 


► 




__50^^ 


— 




- — 2r — 4— 
1 ,- 1 


— 2r — ► 






© 








^if" - 





^ N 

_ ^ 


it 


^M 














132 



TOOL FORGING 



Exercise 37. Ball-Peen Hammer. (Plate XXXV.) 

In making the 2-pound ball-peen hammer shown, a piece 
of 1 3^ -inch square tool steel 6^ inches long is used. This is 
enough stock for two hammers; if only one is wanted the 
stock should be long enough to work without using tongs. 

Step One. — Mark the stock as shown with a chisel and a 
center-punch. 

Step Two. — Flatten out the end as shown at 2. If this is 
done after punching the hole, the hole is likely to become too 
large. 

Step Three. — Punch the hole in the same manner as in 
Exercise 35. Drive in a drift-pin, and hammer down the 
sides as shown at A in Fig. 54 until they are straight. 

Step Four. — Roughly shape the hammer with top- and 
bottom-fullers, as shown at B in Fig. 54. 




Step Five. — Round the body of the hammer at the rounded 
edge of the anvil with a top-fuller and a set-hammer. The 
body should taper in both directions, and be thicker at the 
center than at the edges. 

Step Six. — Cut the stock at the chisel mark from four 



Exercise 37. 



Plate XXXV. 



BALL PEEN HAMMER. 



© 



5rock-l2xlix6g' tool sfee\. 



5i' "J L^l^'-J 



® 



L-,y- 



r-H 



t-iiM^. 



\ 



i- \ 



Punch ho/G at csnrer' purred /rya^K 



H^"h 



Use -^ fuli&r^ 



Ur- 



M 








Dn'ye pm thru from hoth :iide6 to rrjaMe ha/e 
t£?pere»^ 



C^^ 




® 



F}nfsh hammer by gnn<^inq. 



134 TOOL FORGING 

sides, in order to insure a square end. Draw-out the face, 
swage it, and trim it with a hot chisel. The peen should then 
be cut to length, and the corners cut off. It is rounded in a 
bottom-swage. The reason for finishing the face before the 
peen is that it is hard to hold the peen with a pair of tongs. 

Grind both ends, making the edges of the face slightly 
rounded, to prevent the hammer from marking hot material. 

This hammer is hardened and tempered in the same man- 
ner as the cross-peen hammer. 



Exercise 38. Hot Eye-Chisel. (Plate XXXVI.) 

If only one hot chisel is necessary, it may be forged on the 
end of a bar long enough to handle easily ; but if two are 
wanted, the stock should be cut 10 inches long. 

Step One. — Mark the stock as shown. 

Step Two. — Punch the hole in the manner described In 
Exercise 35. 

Step Three.— Draw-out the head either under the trip- 
hammer or with a sledge. Finish it with a flatter, and cut off 
the end with a hot eye-chisel. In trimming the end it should 
be made slightly convex. 

Step Four. — Make fuller marks, as shown at 4, with ^- 
inch top- and bottom- fullers. The stock should be turned over 
in doing this, to insure a uniform depth of the cuts. 

Punch and draw-out the head for a chisel at the other end 
of the stock in the same manner. Cut the stock at the center 
from two sides only, in order to have the blades square across 
the ends when drawn-out. 

Step F"ive. — Draw-out the stock for the blade either under 
the trip-hammer or with a sledge, and smooth it with a flatter. 
When trimmed the blade is hardened and tempered to a blue 
color, in the same manner as the hand cold chisel of Exer- 
cise 26. 



Exercise 38. 



Plate XXXVI. 



® 



HOT EYE CHISEL. 


'JtDck- I4 A li'x iO~ tool areel. 




® 




-I 


.. 


af— j 


[- 2|-" 


,. 










® 
® 


1 








gs 






^ zr — — — zr — 








Q5___- 


- 














CJ^ 



-^ 



/^ ttipan^boffam fu/krs 




136 TOOL FORGING 



Exercise 39. Cold Eye-Chisel. (Plate XXXVII.) 

For a cold chisel the stock is marked, the eye punched, 
and the head drawn-out and finished in the same way as for 
the hot chisel. After cutting the stock at the middle the blade 
is drawn-out, either under the trip-hammer or with a sledge. 
Care should be taken in doing this to keep the sides rounding, 
since a chisel of this form is much stronger than one with 
straight sides. This chisel is hardened like a hand chisel, and 
tempered to a brown or purple color. The edge should be 
ground slightly convex. 



Exercise 39. 



Plate XXXVII. 



COLD EYE CHISEL. 



5rock-- I^A li X 9V tool steel 



(D 



-/?- 



I 

i ! 



Chisel Mark-i 



4r 



4*- 



^r 



^ 



c 






Draw down end. 



i 



® 



'^^Q' 




2^" — — 



CJ^" 




® 





6t 



138 TOOL FORGING 

Exercise 40. Geologist's Pick. (Plate XXXMII.) 

This pick, which is intended for the use of students of 
geology, should weigh about 2^ pounds when finished. 

Step One. — Mark the 1^4 x i^-inch stock with a center- 
punch and chisel, as shown. 

Step Two. — Punch the hole for the eye. 

Step Three. — Insert a drift-pin in the hole, and flatten 
the sides. With a hot chisel cut the stock part way thru at a 
distance of %6 inch from the edge of the hole, on both sides 
of the eye. These cuts should be finished with a very thin 
fuller, or with a hot chisel having a rounded edge, in order to 
make the bottom of the cuts round, as shown at 3. 

The material should then be cut along the lines MN and 
OP. The material cut out in this way might be drawn-out 
instead, but this would be difficult without a beveled set- 
hammer. Cutting it out is somewhat easier and quicker. 

Step Four. — Draw-out the end C under the trip-hammer 
to tlie size shown. 

If only one pick is being made, it should be cut ofif of the 
bar at the chisel mark shown at i ; but if two are wanted, the 
second pick is started in the same manner before cutting. The 
end D is then drawn-out under the trip-hammer to the form 
shown at 5. 

.Step Five. — Insert the drift-pin in Ihe eye, and smooth the 
stock around it with a set-hammer, as -shown in Fig. A. Fin- 
ish the head with a set-hammer and flatter, and cut it to 
length with a hot chisel, trimming from four sides, to insiu'e a 
square cut. 

Step Si.x. — Finish the pointed end )vith a flatter, and cut it 
to length. The face and point are then ground, hardened, and 
tempered. The point is first treated in the same manner as 
the cold chisel, being tempered to a dark blue. The head is 
then heated for about 2 inches, and haV'^ened in the same 



Exercise 40. 



Plate XXXVIII. 



GEOLOGIST'S PICK. 



Stock- Iqrxl4^ Tool sreel. 



Marh ty.fh ^,s^. 



/xyncA ^ — 2^: . 



Ar 







Inner e3ae of<:^nr//- 



Fig. A 



® 



o 



o] .14 



k'-i-i"— 'i^ 



N! 



% 













i-li- 



^ 


0^ 




^ 4i- 


1117 




^^^~~-^____ 


f 




140 TOOL FORGING 

manner. It is tempered to a brown or a dark straw color. In 
heating the head, care should be taken to prevent the heat from 
flowing back and softening the hardened point. This may be 
done by keeping damp coals around the point. 



Exercise 41. Hand Rock-Drill. (Plate XXXIX.) 

Step One.— Cut a piece of •)4-inch octagon tool steel 16 
inches long. Heat the end and draw it out, making it about 
YiQ inch thick, as shown at i. The hammering should be done 
on two opposite sides, and the stock allowed to widen as much 
as possible. 

Step Two. — Trim the end at an angle with a hot chisel, as 
shown. 

Step Three. — Finish trimming the end with a similar cut, 
forming the cutting edge shown at 3. 

Step Four. — Sharpen the edge with a hand-hammer, hold- 
ing the stock flat on the face of the anvil. The blows should 
come at an angle of 45^', to force the metal back; and the drill 
should be rotated about the cutting edge, in order to make it 
circular. 

After sharpening the drill, it is brought to the refining heat 
and hardened in the same manner as a cold chisel. The tem- 
per color should be a dark straw. 



Exercise 41. 



Plate XXXIX. 



HAND ROCK DRILL. 



© 



5tock- 3-'x 16" Octagonal tool iteel. 



16' 



D 




hi- 



© 



© 



© 



m 



"\i 




k. 



142 



TOOL FORGING 



Exercise 42. Machine Rock-Drill. (Plate XXXX.) 

Step One. — Cut a piece of ^-inch octagon tool steel 20 
inches long. 

Step Two. — Upset the end as shown at 2, and smooth it 
with a flatter. 

Step Three. — Make small grooves along four sides as 
shown at 3 with a thin fuller, or with a hot chisel having a 
rounding cutting edge. These grooves extend back 2V4 inches, 
and are made for the purpose of guiding or holding the top 
and bottom \'- fullers in place when fullering. 

Step Four. — Deepen the grooves with the top and bottom 





J 





Fig. 55- 


Fig. 56. 


Fig. 57- 


Top .\nd Bottom 


Wing Swage. 


Dolly. 


V-FULLEKS. 







V-fullers shown in Fig. 55. The stock should be turned dur- 
ing this operation, to insure uniformity in the depth of the 
fuller cuts. 

Step Five. — Make the sides, or wings, of the drill thinner 
and wider, using a bottom sow, or wing swage, Fig. 56, and 



Exercise 42. 



Plate XXXX. 



MACHINL ROCK DRILL. 



Stock- lx20"0cragonal tool steel. 



® ^1 



ir^ 



20" 



19" 







® ^^ 




® ^^ 





® 



Hi-'h- 




144 TOOL FORGING 

a square set-hammer. Trim off the end of the drill with a very 
thin hot chisel, making it square, as shown at 5. 

Step Six. — Form the cutting edges, trimming the edges 
as shown at 6. 

Step Seven. — Finish the end with the dolly shown in Fig. 
57. This dolly may be placed with its head resting on the 
anvil, the drill point being driven down into it while hot. An- 
other method is to hold the drill across the face of the anvil 
with the dolly against the cutting end, and then strike the head 
of the dolly with a backing-hammer. If a very keen edge is 
desired on the drill, it should be filed while hot with a square 
file. 

The hardening and tempering is done in the same manner 
as the cold chisel, the colors being drawn to a dark straw. 



INDEX 



Allowance, finishing, 84. 
Angle weld, 80. 
Annealing, box, 96. 

common method, 96. 

high-speed steel, 112. 

water-, 96. 
Anvil, 15. 

Ball-peen hammer, 132. 
Band ring, 66. 
Banking fire, 14. 
Beam strap, 38. 
Belt hammer, 82. 
Bibliography, 11. 
Bob-punch, 22. 
Bolt, eye-, 60. 

forged, 72. 

upset-head, 68. 

welded-head, 70. 
Boring tool, 126. 
Box annealing, 96. 
Building fire, 13. 
Burned iron, 27. 
Butt weld, T2>- 
Cape chisel, 116. 

round-nose, 117. 
Carving knives, tempering, 105. 
Case-hardening, 107. 
Center-punch, 118. 
Chain links, 50. 
Chisel, cape, 116. 

cold, 114. 

eye-, cold, 136. 

eye-, hot, 134. 

round-nose cape, 117. 
Chisels, 21. 

grinding, 21. 
Cleaning fire, 15. 
Clevis, 62. 



14. 
114. 



Clinker. 14. 
Coal, 13. 
Coke, 14. 

making, 
Cold chisel, 

eye-chisel, 136. 

stock, cutting, 29. 
Cone, 24. 
Cooling high-speed steel, 

methods of, 102. 

warping in, 104. 
Cross-peen hammer, 126. 

liammer, small, 130. 
Cupping-tool, 68. 
Cutting cold stock, 29. 

high-speed steel, no. 

hot stock, 29. 
Cutting-off tool, 120. 
Dolly, 142. 
Drawing-out, 27. 

and bending" ring, 32. 
Drift-pin, 128. 
Drill, rock-, hand, 140. 

rock-, machine, 142. 
Emery-wheel test, 11. 
Eye-bolt, 60. 
Eye-punch, 128. 
Finishing allowance, 84. 
Fire, banking, 14. 

building, 13, 

cleaning, 15. 

oxidizing, 26. 

tools, 13. 
Fitting tongs, 19. 
Flat-jawed tongs, 18, 87. 
Flat lap-weld, 48. 

ring, 64. 
Flatter, 20. 



146 



INDEX 



Flux, method of using, 43. 
Fluxes, use of in welding, 43. 
Forge, 12. 
Forged bolt, 72. 

hook, 56. 

open-end wrench, 84. 
Forging heat of high-speed steel. 
no. 

heat of tool steel, 102. 
Formation of scale, to prevent, 

26. 
Fullers, 22. 

V-, 142. 
Gate-hook, twisted, 40. 
Geologist's pick, 138. 
Grain, restoring the, 103. 
Grinding chisels, 21. 
Guide for hardening and temper- 
ing. 99. 
Hammer, backing, 17. 

ball-peen, 132. 

cross-peen, 17, 126. 

hand, 17, 

set-, 21. 

sledge, 17. 

small cross-peen. 130. 

steam, 83. 

trip- or belt-, 82. 
Hand rock-drill. 140. 
Hardening, 97. 

case-, 107. 

heating high-speed steel for, 
III. 

heating steel for, 102. 

pack, 109. 

at a rising heat, 103. 

and tempering, guide for, 99. 

and tempering tools thruout, 
102. 

thin flat articles, 104. 



Heading tool, 68. 
Heat, refining, 97. 

rising, hardening at, 103. 

welding, 26. 
Heating high-speed steel for hard- 
ening, III. 

steel for hardening, 102. 

uniform, importance of, 103. 
High-carbon steel, 10. 
High-speed steel, 10. 

steel, annealing, 112. 

steel, cooling, iii. 

steel, cutting of, no. 

steel, forging heat of, no. 

steel, heating for hardening, 
ni. 

steel, lead heat treatment of, 
n I. 
Hinge. 62. 
Hook, forged, 56. 
Hook, gate, twisted, 40. 
Hook, S-, 34. 
Hollow-bit tongs, 18. 94. 
Hot eye-chisel, 134. 

stock, cutting. 29. 
Indications of welding heat, 27. 
Iron, burned, 2"] . 

Norway, 9. 

shrinkage of. n. 

Swedish, 9. 

weight of, n. 

wrought. 9. 
Jump-weld. 74. 
Lap-weld. 42. 
Lathe tools, \\%. 

tools, boring, 126. 

tools, cutting-off, 120. 

tools, round-nose, 118. 

tools, side, 124. 

tools, threading, 122. 



INDEX 



147 



Lead heat treatment of high-speed 

steel, III. 
Link tongs, 19, 90. 
Links of chain, 50. 
Machine rock-drill, 142. 
Machinery steel, 9. 
Making coke, 14. 
Marking tools, 20. 
Materials, 9. 

Measuring and marking tools, 20. 
Methods of cooling, 102. 
Necking tool, 22. 
Norway iron, 9. 
Oxidizing fire, 26. 
Pack hardening, 109. 
Pick, common, welding tip on, 76. 
Pick, geologist's, 138. 
Pin, drift-, 12'^. 
Practice welds, — fagot, 44. 
Punch, hoh-, 22. 

center-, 118. 

eye-, 128. 
Punching, 31. 
Recalescence, 98. 
Refining heat, 97. 
Restoring the grain, 103. 
Ring, band, 66. 

drawing-out and bending, 32. 

flat, 64. 

link scarf, 56. 

round, lap-weld, 54. 

welded, 52. 
Rock-drill, hand, 140. 

machine, 142. 
Round lap-weld, 44. 
Round-nose cape chisel, 117. 

tool, 118. 
S-hook, 34. 

Scale, to prevent formation of, 26. 
Scarfing, 43. 



Selection of steel for tools, 113. 

Set-hammer, 21. 

Shear blades, tempering, 106. 

Shears, 25. 

Shrinkage, 11. 

Side tool. 124. 

Sledge, 17. 

Split-weld, 75. 

for heavy stock, 76. 
Springs, tempering, 106. 
Squaring, or truing-up, work, 28. 
Staples, 36. 
Steam-hammer, 83. 
Steel, high-carbon, 10. 

high-speed, 10. 

high-speed, treatment of, no. 

machinery, 9. 

shrinkage of, 11. 

for tools, selection of, 113. 
Strap, beam. 38. 
Surface plate, 25. 
Swage block, 23. 

wing, 142. 
Swages, 23. 
Swedish iron, 9. 
T-weld, 78. 
Taps, tempering, 104. 
Tempering carving knives, 105. 

cutting edges of tools, 100. 

general method, 98. 

and hardening, guide for, 99. 

shear blades, 106. 

springs, 106. 

taps, 104. 

tools thruout, 102. 
Test, emery-wheel, 11. 
Thin, flat articles, hardening, 104. 
Threading tool, 122. 
Tongs, link, 90. 
Tool-rack, 16. 



148 



INDEX 



Tool steel, forging heat of, 102. 
Tools, fire, 13. 

lathe, 118. 

measurhig and marking, 20. 

steel for, selection of. 113. 

tempering cutting edges of, 
100. 

tempering thruout, 102. 
Tongs, eye-, 19. 

fitting, 19. 

fiat-jawed, 18, 87. 

hollow-bit, 18, 94. 

link, 19, 90. 

pick-up, 19. 
Trip-hammer, 82. 

Truing up, or squaring work. 28. 
Twisted gate-hook, 40. 
Twisting, 30. 
Uniform heating, importance of. 

103. 
Upset-head bolt. 68. 
Upsetting, 42. 
V-fullers, 142. 



V-weld, -j^^- 

Vise, 1},. 

Warping in cooling, 104. 

Water-annealing, 96. 

Weight of iron. 1 1. 

Weld, angle-. 80. 

butt-, -Ji. 

fagot, 44. 

fiat, lap-, 48. 

jump-, 74. 

lap-. 42. 

round lap-. 44. 

split-, ~'^. 

split-, for heavy stock, 76. 

T-, 78. 

V-. 71. 
Welded-head bolt. 70. 
Welded ring, 52. 
Welding heat, 26, 

heat, indications of. 27. 
Wing swage, 142. 
Wrench, forged open-end. 84. 
Wrought iron, 9. 



